EXIJBKIS  UNIVERSITY  OFCALIFORNIA 


<$>  SAN  FRANCISCO 

PRESENTED  TO  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 

ROBERT  GORDON  SPROUL,  PRESIDENT. 
«>   By  * 

MR.ANDMRS.MILTON  S.RAY 

CECILY,  VIRGINIA  AND  ROSALYN  RAY 

AND  THE 

RAY  OIL  BURNER  COMPANY 


THE  PRACTICE  OP 

TYPOGRAPHY 


THE  PRACTICE  OF 

TYPOGRAPHY 


A   TREATISE   ON   THE 

PROCESSES   OF   TYPE-MAKING 

THE  POINT   SYSTEM,  THE   NAMES,  SIZES 

STYLES   AND   PRICES   OF 

PLAIN  PRINTING  TYPES 

BY 

THEODORE  LOW  DE  VINNE 


NEW  YORK 

THE  CENTURY  CO. 

1900 


Copyright,  1899,  by 
THEODORE  Low  DEVINNE. 


THE  DEVINNE  PRESS. 


PREFACE 

THIS  treatise  is  a  summary  of  detached  notes 
collected  by  the  writer  since  1860.  A  desire 
to  make  it  complete  and  exact  has  prevented  its 
earlier  publication.  As  an  aid  to  this  result  each 
chapter  has  been  revised  recently  by  experts  in 
different  branches  of  printing.  In  its  present  cor- 
rected form  it  is  believed  that  it  will  be  found  of 
use  to  all  who  seek  for  information  about  types 
which  cannot  be  compressed  within  the  ordinary 
manual  of  printing,  or  be  gleaned  quickly  from  the 
specimen  books  of  many  type-founders.  The  scope 
of  the  book  has  to  be  limited  to  plain  types.  Re- 
marks concerning  newspaper  types,  typographic 
decorations,  and  recent  fashions  in  book- work, 
have  to  be  postponed.  The  composition  of  title- 
pages  may  be  the  subject  of  another  treatise. 

In  making  the  numerous  corrections  demanded 
by  changes  of  fashion  and  new  methods  of  manu- 
facture, I  have  not  considered  it  judicious  to  change 
the  earlier  and  best -known  name  of  any  type- 


6  Preface 

foundry  which  has  introduced  a  new  face  of  type. 
Many  of  them  are  now  branches  of  the  American 
Type  Founders  Company.  To  accredit  each  face 
of  type  to  a  great  company  which  has  branches  in 
many  widely  separated  cities  would  not  properly 
specify  the  maker  or  the  place  of  manufacture. 

Acknowledgments  for  valuable  information  in 
the  preparation  of  thic  matter  are  due,  and  are  here 
gratefully  made,  to  the  late  David  Bruce,  Jr.,  the 
late  James  Lindsay,  and  their  successor.  Mr.  V.  B. 
Munson,  of  the  New  York  Type  Foundry  j  to  Mr. 
J.  W.  Phinney  of  Boston,  Mr.  L.  S.  Benton  of  New 
York,  and  Mr.  Henry  Barth  of  Cincinnati,  of  the 
American  Type  Founders  Company  j  to  Mr.  Charles 
T.  Jacobi  of  the  Chis wick  Press,  and  Mr.  T.  W. 
Smith  of  H.  W.  Caslon  &  Company,  London ;  to 
Messrs.  Theodor  Goebel  of  Stuttgart,  Claude  Mot- 
teroz  of  Paris,  V.  Deslandes  of  the  Imprensa  Na- 
cional  of  Lisbon,  and  William  E.  Loy  of  San  Fran- 
cisco. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I  The  Processes  of  Type-making 9 

II  The  Names  of  the  Leading  Sizes  of  Types  53 

ill  The  Point  System 123 

iv  A  Font  of  Type 165 

v  Faces  or  Styles  of  Type.      Old-style  Roman  182 

vi  Modern  Faces  of  Roman  Letter 209 

vii  Condensed  Roman  Types 255 

vm  Italic  Types 269 

ix  Fat-face  or  Title-types 281 

x  Black-letter 291 

xi  Gothic    . 315 

xn  Antique  Types,  Runic,  Celtic,  and  Italian    .  323 
xin  The  Classes  and  Prices  of  Printing-types  .     .  336 
xiv  Large   Types.      Wood  Types.     The  Panto- 
graph.    Benton's  Punch-cutting  Machine  345 
xv  Recent  Quaint  Styles  of  Plain  Type    ...  359 


PLAIN  PRINTING-TYPES 


The  Processes  of  Type-making 

?RINTING-TYPES  are  made  from  an 
alloy  of  melted  lead,  tin,  antimony, 
and  sometimes  copper,  that  fills  the 
mould  exactly  and  shrinks  but  little 
in  cooling.  The  utility  of  typogra- 
phy Depends  upon  the  accuracy  of  each  Types  must 
type,  and  the  consequent  squareness  of  a  be  founded 
thousand  or  a  hundred  thousand  types  in  inmoulds 
any  combination.  This  accuracy  is  most  certainly 
secured  by  founding  each  type  singly  in  a  mould. 
Experiments  in  cutting  or  swaging  them  from 
cold  metal  have  hitherto  been  unsuccessful.  Nor 
is  there  any  practical  substitute  for  type-metal : 
brass  and  copper  melt  at  a  great  heat  that  soon 
wears  out  the  mould ;  lead  and  tin  are  too  soft  for 
the  service  required ;  glass  is  too  brittle,  and  will 
2  9 


10  Departments  of  Type-making 

not  entirely  fill  the  matrix ;  gutta-percha  and  cel- 
luloid cost  more  and  have  disadvantages  that  out- 
weigh their  merits.  Large  types  for  posting-bills 
Large  types  are  ma(le  from  close-grained  wood  like 
made  from  that  of  the  box,  maple,  or  pear  tree :  for 
hardwoods  this  branch  of  printmg,  types  of  wood 

are  preferred,  as  lighter  and  cheaper  than  those 
made  from  metal.  Types  of  wood  are  seldom 
smaller  as  to  height  of  face  than  one  inch.  They 
can  be  made  smaller,  but  small  pieces  of  wood 
warp  after  heat  or  swell  after  moisture  and  are 
unfit  for  practical  work. 

As  now  practised,  type-making  has  six  distinct 
departments :  (1)  Punch-cutting,  or  the  art  of  de- 
six  depart-  signing  and  engraving  the  model  char- 
ments  in  acters  from  which  types  are  made ;  (2) 
type-mating  Fitting.upj  or  the  art  of  adjusting  the 

matrices  to  the  moulds ;  (3)  Electrotyping,  or  the 
art  of  making  matrices  by  electrolysis ;  (4)  Mould- 
making,  or  the  art  of  constructing  the  moulds  in 
which  types  are  cast,  and  the  exact  tools  by  which 
their  accuracy  is  tested ;  (5)  Type-casting,  or  the 
art  of  founding  types  in  moulds ;  (6)  Type-dress- 
ing, or  the  art  of  finishing  the  incomplete  work 
of  the  type-caster.  The  breaking-off  of  surplus 
metal  from  the  cast  types,  the  rubbing-down  of 
the  feather  edge  made  in  casting,  the  kerning  or 
adjusting  of  overhanging  letters,  and  the  final  in- 
spection of  each  finished  type  are  additional  oper- 
ations. Every  large  foundry  has  a  few  workmen 


Punch-cutting  the  First  Process         11 

who  are  expert  in  two  or  three  of  these  depart- 
ments, but  the  ordinary  workman  has  knowledge 
and  practice  in  one  department  only. 

Punch-cutting  is  the  first  process,  which  must  be 
preceded  by  a  careful  drawing  of  the  characters. 
No  operation  in  typography  requires    Puncll_cut_ 
more  skill  than  this,  and  in  none  is    ting  is  the 
error  more  disastrous.1    The  modern 
punch-cutter  is  not  fettered  by  arbitrary  rules :  he 
does  not  conform  to  the  models  devised  by  Albert 
Diirer,  nor  those  subsequently  made  by  French 
theorists  in  type-founding.     He  is  at  liberty  to 
design  characters  that  may  be  taller  or  broader, 
thicker  or  thinner,  than  any  heretofore  made,  but 
he  is  required  to  make  all  the  characters  of  a  full 
font  uniform  as  to   style,  so  as  to  show  perfect 
correlation.    The  characters  must  seem    Typesmu8t 
uniform  as  to  height,  line,  stroke,  serif,    be  drawn 
curve,  and  angle;    they  should  be  in    accuratelr 
proper  relative  proportion  as  to  size,  and  as  to 
nearness  and  distance  in  all  combinations.     The 
beauty  of  text-types  is  in  their  precision.  That  free- 
dom of  drawing  which  is  permitted,  and  some- 

1  Type-founding   is   not    like  If  the  punch-cutter  has  not  the 

other  arts,  in  which  imperfect  requisite  ability  for  the  work, 

workmanship  may  find  a  use  the  founder,  who  gives  metal, 

proportionate    to    its    relative  and    the    printer,   who    gives 

value.     Printing  should  toler-  paper,   cannot  retrieve  his  er- 

ate   nothing  that   is  bad,   nor  rors.     They  are  obliged  to  per- 

even  that  which  is  mediocre,  petuate  these  evidences  of  his 

since  it  costs  as  much  to  found  mean  ability,  and  to  dishonor  ty- 

and  print  bad  types  as  it  does  pography.    Fournier,  "  Manuel 

to  found  and  print  perfect  ones.  Typographique,"  vol.  i,  p.  3. 


12         Methods  in  Designing  of  Letters 

times  approved,  in  the  letters  of  a  good  penman, 
or  in  engraving,  or  in  the  types  of  job  printers, 
is  not-tolerated  in  the  text-types  of  books,  which 
must  be  precise.1 

The  assortment  of  characters  known  to  printers 
as  a  font  of  roman  book-type  requires  the  en- 
graving of  150  punches :  29  large  capitals,  including 
&,  JB,  and  (E  -,  29  small  capitals,  including  &,  M,  and 
CE  ;  33  lower-case  characters,  including  fi,  fl,  ff,  ffi,  ffl, 
ae,  and  03  j  19  figures  and  fractions ;  22  points,  refer- 
ences, and  signs ;  18  other  characters.  Accents 
and  the  special  signs  required  for  some  books  are 
not  furnished  in  the  regular  assortment. 

These  characters  are  divided  into  six  classes  of 
irregular  heights  of  face :  (1)  Full-bodied  letters, 
like  Q  and  j  —  that  occupy  the  entire  body  of  the 

1  Diirer's  rules  and^  diagrams  planations  of  it  are  given  in  his 

for  the  formation  of  letters,  in  "Regulse  Trium  Ordinum  Lit- 

his   "  Unterweysung   der  Mes-  erarum   Typographicarum "  of 

sung "  of    1524,   are   reprinted  1676.     The  extreme  of  scientific 

in  "  Die  Initialen  der  Renais-  precision  was  attempted  by  a 

sance,"  by  Camillo    Sitte    and  commission  of  the  "Acad&nie 

Josef  Salb  (folio,  Vienna,  1882).  des  Sciences  "  of  Paris,  appoint- 

Geoff rey  Tory  of  Paris,  in  his  ed  in  1694,  of  which  M.  Jaugeon 

u  Champfleury  "  of  1529 ;  Ycair  was  the  chief.  He  recommended 

of    Saragossa,   in   his   "  Ortho-  the  projection  of  every  roman 

graphia  Practica "  of  1548 ;  and  capital  on  a  framework  of  2304 

Paccioli  of  Venice,  in  his  "  De  little  squares,  and  on  a  congeries 

Divina   Proportione"   of    1509,  of  squares  and  rhomboids  and 

have  also  devised  geometrical  curves  for  lower-case  and  italic 

formulas  for  letters.    Moxon's  letters.     These    rules   and  dia- 

scheme  for  the  plotting  out  of  grams  no  doubt  are  of  some  use 

each  letter  in  little  squares  42  to  designers  of  letters,  but  they 

wide  and  42  high  is  illustrated  in  have  never  been  fully  adopted 

the  text  (p.  13),  and  detailed  ex-  by  any  punch-cutter. 


Types  Must  be  Made  by  Rule          13 

type;  (2)  Ascending  letters,  like  A,  b,  h,  d,  that 
occupy  the  upper  three-fourths  of  the  body;  (3) 
Descending  letters,  like  p,  y,  g,  q,  that  uvular 
occupy  the  lower  three-fourths  of  the  heights  of 
body;  (4)  Short  letters  like  a,  o,  that  characters 
occupy  about  one-half  of  the  body  in  the  middle 
part;  (5)  Small  capitals,  that  are  sometimes  in 
height  more  than  one-half  of  the  body,  but  not 
as  high  as  the  ascending  letters;  (6)  Irregular 
characters,  like  the  *,  that  have  no  arbitrary 
height,  but  do  have  a  definite  position. 


ticale    of  J.T.  Parts   Vt'z:  the 


Moxon's  method  of  designing  letters. 

The  punch-cutter  begins  his  work  of  practical 
design  by  drawing  a  geometrical  framework,  on 
which  he  determines  the  proper  position  Letters  are 
of  every  line  and  the  height  of  each  first  drawn 
character.  A  small  margin  is  left  at  onPaPer 
top  and  bottom  of  the  face  to  prevent  the  touch- 
ing of  a  descending  letter  against  an  ascending 
letter  in  the  next  line,  as  well  as  to  prevent  the 
wear  of  exposed  lines  cut  flush  to  the  edge  of  the 
body. 


14          Rules  Not  to  be  Used  Servilely 

The  relative  heights  of  the  short  and  long  letters 
vary  greatly :  in  some  styles  the  short  letters  are 
but  one-third  of  the  body  j  in  other  styles,  nearly 
two-thirds,  and  the  ascending  and  descending  let- 
ters are  correspondingly  taller  or  shorter. 

Measuring  instruments  of  precision  are  needed, 
but  they  cannot  be  used  servilely  or  thoughtlessly. 

optical  de-  ^°  ^ve  ^e  ^P6  ^e  nee^e(^  appearance 
lusions  are  of  uniformity,  some  of  the  lines  must  be 
humored  ja^  ^own  in  directions  that  transgress 
the  rules.  Some  types  have  to  be  drawn  longer 
than  their  fellows.  Optical  delusions  must  be 
humored,  as  will  be  more  clearly  shown  in  the 
curved  letters  of  the  following  illustration. 

AOES 

If  a  straight-edge  be  laid  against  the  foot  of 
this  line,  one  can  see  that  the  letters  which  curve 
at  the  foot  fall  below  the  line.  If  they  did  not 
project  they  would  seem  too  short.  The  angles 
of  capital  letters  like  A  Y  M  N  Z  have  to  be  varied 
for  each  letter.  These  are  conspicuous  examples, 
but  there  are  many  more;  a  large  proportion  of 
the  characters  for  every  font  of  roman  or  italic 
contain  lines  that  are  departures  from  the  rules 


Departures  from  Rules  often  Made       15 

which  must  be  observed  in  their  mated  charac- 
ters. Deviations  have  to  be  made  occasionally,  not 
only  to  deceive  the  eye,  but  to  make  each  letter 
pleasing  and  generally  acceptable  in  any  combi- 
nation with  other  letters.  The  effect  of  letters  in 
combination  must  be  studied. 

These  irregularities  cannot  be  formulated  in  a 
system ;  they  vary  with  every  new  style  of  face, 
and  to  some  extent  with  every  new  size  of  body. 
The  knowledge  of  what  is  needed  in  the  forms  of 
types  can  be  acquired  only  by  long  practice,  and  by 
a  careful  study  of  the  combinations  of  different 
letters.  American  type-founders  say  that  there 
are  not  a  dozen  men  in  the  United  States  who  can 
make  acceptable  drawings  for  a  symmetrical  font 
of  roman  and  italic  types. 

When  the  proportions  of  the  letters  have  been 
determined,  the  punch-cutter  begins  his  work  by 
making  a  counter-punch  of  steel.  The  Acounter- 
illustration  adjoining  shows  the  form  punch  the 
of  a  counter-punch  for  the  letter  H  of  flrst  work 
_  the  size  of  double  english.  It  is  an  engraving 
pr|  in  high  relief  of  the  counter  or  hollow  part 
™  of  the  type,  that  is,  of  that  part  which  ap- 
pears white  in  the  printed  letter.  These  counter- 
punches  have  little  resemblance  to  the  letters  for 
which  they  are  intended.  When  approved,  the 
counter-punch  is  impressed,  to  a  proper  depth, 
into  the  end  of  a  short  bar  of  soft  steel.  The 
depth  is  necessarily  shallow  for  small  types  and 


16  Cutting  the  Punch 

deeper  for  large  types.1  Properly  impressed  or 
struck,  this  counter-punch  finishes,  at  one  stroke, 
the  interior  part  of  the  model  letter,  and  does  it 
more  quickly  and  neatly  than  it  could  be  done 
with  cutting  tools. 

This  bar  of  soft  steel  is  known  as  the  punch. 
When  it  has  received  the  impress  of 
cutting  ^ne  counter-punch,  the  engraver 
of  the     cuts  away  the  outer  edges  until 
puncl1     the  letter  is  adjudged  perfect. 
The  punch  is  the  model  type — the  pat- 
tern from  which   it  is  intended   that 
thousands  of  printing- types   shall  be 
made.     To  make  this  model  letter  on 
the  punch  faultlessly,  all  the  measure- 
ments of  the   drawing  on  paper  are 
repeated  on  the  steel,  gauges  are  fre- 
quently used,  and  trial  proofs  are  taken 
while  the  work  is  in  progress.     To  get 
these  trial  proofs  the  cutter  puts  the     Punch  Of 
punch  into  the  flame  of  a  flaring  gas- 
burner  until  its  face  is  covered  with  soot.     Then, 
after  breathing  repeatedly  on  a  bit  of  paper  until 
its  surface   is    softened   by  moisture,  he  firmly 
presses  the  punch  on  the  paper.     In  this  way  he 

1  Founder,   in  his   "  Manuel  shallow,  and  sufficiently  justi- 

Typographique "   (vol.  i,  p.  12),  fles    the    objection    of    Fertel, 

recommends    one-fourth    of    a  an  early  French  printer,  who 

geometric    line,   or    about    the  said  that  the  counters  of  small 

forty-eighth  of  an  inch,  as  the  French  types  filled  up  with  ink 

proper  depth    for   small   type,  too  quickly,  and  thus  prevented 

This    makes    the    counter    too  good  presswork. 


Making  the  Matrix 


17 


gets  a  sharper  proof  of  his  work  than  can  be  had 
from  any  impression  made  from  black  mixed  with 
oil  or  upon  paper  sodden  with  water. 

When  the  engraver  has  finished  the  cutting  of 
the  punch,  its  soft  steel  is  hardened  until  it  has 
strength  to  penetrate  copper.  This  done,  8triking 
it  is  then  punched  in  a  flat,  narrow  bar  of  of  the 
cold-rolled  copper,  which  makes  a  reversed  matr 
duplicate  of  the  letter  on  the  punch.  In  this  state 
the  copper  bar  is  known  as  a  drive,  a  strike,  or 
an  unjustified  matrix.  It  is  only 
when  the  drive  has  been  made  per- 
fect that  it  is  known  as  the  matrix. 
This  matrix  is  really  the  mould  for 
the  face  of  the  letter. 

The  drive  is  a  shapeless  bit  of 
copper,  which  must  be  accurately 
fitted  to  the  mould.  During  the  op- 
eration of  casting,  it  must  5^^ 
move  freely  to  and  from  the  of  the 
mould,  and  yet  be  snugly  ] 
fitted  thereto.  Its  outer  surface 
must  be  in  exact  parallel  with  the 
face  of  the  sunken  letter  below. 
Not  only  this  matrix,  but  all  matri- 
ces of  the  same  font,  must  be  of  the 
same  depth  from  the  surface  to  the 
sunken  face;  each  must  be  accu- 
rately square  on  the  sides,  and  all  must  have  the 
sunken  letters  relatively  in  the  same  position.  If 
3 


Matrix  of 
letter  H. 

The  letters  DiE 
are  private  marks 
of  the  founder 
which  cannot  ap- 
pear on  the  type. 


18 


Electrotyping  of  Matrices 


this  is  badly  done,  the  founded  types  will  not  stand 
true  in  line  or  have  true  spaces  on  the  sides.  The 
process  of  converting  a  drive  into  an  available 
matrix,  known  among  type-founders  as  fitting-up, 
or  justifying,  is  one  of  the  nicest  of  operations. 
When  perfected  the  matrix  is  stamped  at  the  foot 
with  letters  or  figures  which  enable  the  caster  to 
identify  it. 

Matrices  are  also  made  by  processes  of  electro- 
typing,1  for  which  the  punch  of  steel  and  the 
Eiectrotyp-  operation  of  striking  are  not  required. 
ing  of  the  The  model  letters  are  cut  on  type-metal, 
matrices  ftn(^  ^QY  preparation,  are  suspended 
in  a  battery  containing  a  solution  of  sulphate  of 
copper.  The  action  of  the  electric  current  on  the 
submerged  zinc  and  copper  plates  liberates  atoms 


l  Joseph  A.  Adams  of  New 
York  was  the  first  American 
to  experiment  in  electrotypes 
for  printing  cuts.  In  1839  he 
was  engraving  the  woodcuts 
for  Harper's  "  Pictorial  Bible," 
at  that  date  the  most  elabo- 
rately  illustrated  book  that  had 
been  planned  in  this  country, 
In  overseeing  the  printing  of 
this  work  he  had  practical  evi- 
dence  both  of  the  weakness  of 
the  woodcut  and  the  imperfec- 
tion  of  stereotype,  which  sag- 
gested  to  him  the  value  of  a 
better  process.  In  1841  he  fur- 
nished  to  "Mapes's  Magazine" 
an  electrotype  of  one  of  his  en- 
gravings,  which  was  success- 
fully  printed.  In  1840  Profes- 


sor  Jacob!  of  St.  Petersburg, 
Thomas  Spencer  of  Liverpool, 
and  J.  C.  Jordan  of  London, 
who  seem  to  have  been  making 
experiments  without  any  know- 
ledge  of  one  another's  attempts, 
succeeded  in  making  electro- 
type  plates.  The  first  electro- 
type  matrix  for  types  was  made 
by  Edwin  Starr  of  Philadelphia 
in  1845,  and  used  in  the  foundry 
of  James  Conner  of  New  York. 
This  innovation  was  not  then 
received  with  favor,  for  the  new 
matrices  were  inferior.  The  ob- 
jections  made  against  the  first 
electrotyped  matrices  do  not  ap- 
ply  to  all  that  are  made  now, 
because  they  are  used  for  large 
types  in  all  type-foundries. 


Fitting  of  Matrices  to  Moulds          19 

of  copper  which  are  attracted  and  adhere  to  all 
the  suspended  model  letters.  When  these  letters 
have  received  a  thick  deposit  of  copper  they  are 
taken  out  of  the  battery  and  their  thick  coats  or 
shells  of  copper  are  removed.  The  shells  are  then 
backed  up  or  strengthened,  and  converted  by  the 
fitter-up  into  movable  matrices.  Matrices  can  be 
made  by  the  electrotype  process  from  engraved 
type-metal  as  readily  as  from  punches. 

Every  character  in  the  ordinary  font  of  roman 
and  italic  has  its  own  matrix,  but  all  these  mat- 
rices are  adjusted  to  one  mould.  This  Allmatrice8 
mould  must  not  only  be  true  for  its  are  fitted  to 
own  work,  so  that  every  type  cast  from  onemould- 
it  will  readily  combine  with  its  mates,  but  must 
be  true  in  all  points  to  the  standard  mould,  and 
all  other  moulds  for  that  body.  A  printer  requires 
of  the  founder  that  types  cast  to-day  shall  be  of 
exactly  the  same  body  as  types  cast  twenty  years 
ago,  regardless  of  the  wear  of  the  mould  during 
this  long  interval.  If  types  were  as  uniform  in 
width  as  they  are  in  height,  the  task  would  not  be 
so  difficult ;  but  letters  vary  irregularly  in  width 
from  the  i  to  the  W,  and  the  spaces  vary  regularly 
from  the  hair-space  |  to  the  three-em  |H|  quad- 
rat. It  follows  that  the  mould  must  be  made  ad- 
justable, and  that  nearly  every  change  of  matrix 
will  compel  a  readjustment  of  the  mould. 

The   type-mould  is  of  two  pieces,  apparently 
a  right  and  a  left  counterpart.     The  matrix  pro- 


20  Construction  of  the  Mould 

vided  for  the  face  is  regarded  as  an  attachment. 
Each  piece  consists  of  a  number  of  firmly  screwed 
The  construe-  bits  of  polished  steel.  When  the  two 
tion  of  the  counterparts  are  properly  brought  to- 
type-mouid  gether  their  interior  sides  are  in  exact 
parallel  at  a  fixed  and  unalterable  distance.  The 
upper  end  of  the  mould  is  provided  with  a  seat 
for  the  matrix;  the  lower  end  is  open  for  the 
inflow  of  melted  type-metal.  Between  these  ends 
is  the  hollow  to  be  filled  with  the  melted  metal 
that  makes  the  type.  Although  the  mould  when 
joined  is  immovable  in  the  direction  that  deter- 
mines the  body  of  the  type,  it  has  great  liberty 
of  motion  and  ease  of  adjustment  in  the  direction 
that  determines  the  thickness  or  the  width  of  the 
type.  The  counterparts,  when  properly  adjusted, 
slide  to  and  fro  on  broad  and  solid  bearings  that 
prevent  their  getting  out  of  square.1 

Moulds  are  now  made  to  be  attached  to  type- 
casting machines,  for  casting  by  hand  exclusively 

construction  has  not  b9Pn  done  in  an7  American 
of  the  type-cast-  foundry  since  1845.  At  the  base  of 
ing  machine  the  machine  is  a  sman  furnace,  the 

heat  of  which  keeps  fluid  the  metal  in  the  pot 
above.  Suspended  over  this  pot  is  a  flat-faced 

i  The  type-mould  now  in  use  does  not  write  of  it  as  a  recent 

does  not  materially  differ  from  invention.    Its  more  important 

that  shown  by  Fournier,  in  his  features  are  as  old  as  the  inven- 

"  Manuel    Typographique  "    of  tion  of  typography.     Moxon's 

1764,  or  by  Moxon  in  his  "Me-  moulds  were  of  iron  ;   those  of 

chanick  Exercises  "  of  1683,  who  the  early  founders  were  of  brass. 


Construction  of  the  Mould 


21 


Type-mould  without  matrix,  and  with  a 
type  of  the  letter  H  in  the  mould. 


One  half  of  the  mould. 


The  other  half  of  the  mould. 


22          Operation  of  Casting  Machine 

piston,  or  plunger.  Every  revolution  of  the  crank 
gives  to  this  plunger  a  sudden  thrust  which  in- 
jects through  an  unseen  aperture  enough  of  the 
melted  metal  to  instantly  fill  the  mould  and  the 
matrix,  the  matrix  being  held  in  place  by  a  lever. 
As  soon  as  the  mould  receives  the  metal  it  opens 
at  an  obtuse  angle,  as  a  door  upon  hinges.  At 
the  same  instant  the  pressure  on  the  lever  that 
binds  the  matrix  close  to  the  mould  is  released, 
and  then  the  matrix  springs  backward.  The  type 
is  held  in  the  upper  half  of  the  mould  by  a  blunt 
pin,  and  when  it  raises,  by  the  assistance  of  a  rod 
which  is  connected  with  the  apron,  the  stool  hits 
the  face  end  at  the  back  and  releases  the  type. 
As  soon  as  the  type  is  dislodged  the  mould  closes 
automatically,  and  the  plunger  injects  a  new  sup- 
ply of  metal,  which  is  thrown  out  as  before  in  the 
shape  of  a  type. 

Although  types  are  cast  singly  they  can  be 
made  rapidly;  the  rate  of  one  hundred  in  a  minute 
Types  is  not  an  uncommon  production  of  the 
rapidly  smaller  sizes.  The  large  types,  which  cool 
slowly,  are  cast  slowly.  The  degree  of  heat 
required  varies  with  the  size  of  the  body  and  the 
hardness  of  the  metal.  As  a  rule  the  smaller  sizes 
are  cast  of  harder  metal  and  require  greater  heat. 

Efforts  have  frequently  been  made  to  cast  many 
types  at  one  operation  from  a  multiple  mould. 
The  most  successful  effort  in  this  direction  was 
made  by  Henri  Didot  of  Paris,  who  in  1819  in- 


The  Bruce  Type-casting  Machine       23 


The  Bruce  type-casting  machine. 


24  Impressions  of  Cast  Type 

vented  a  "  polymatype  "  mould  for  casting  a  font 
of  extremely  small  type ; l  but  this  mould,  although 
occasionally  used  by  his  successors  for  very  small 
bodies,  has  not  been  adopted  by  other  founders. 

The  types  thrown  out  of  the  mould  are  for  the 
greater  part  perfect  as  to  face,  but  unfinished  as 
imperfect  ^°  b°dy,  for  an  unformed  strip  of  metal 
as  thrown  called  the  jet,  which  cools  outside  of 
1  the  mould,  is  attached  to  the  lower  end 
of  each  type.  The  bodies  of  the  types  have  on 
their  corners  burs,2  or  sharp  edges  of  metal.  These 
and  other  imperfections  have  to  be  removed  by 
the  rubber  and  dresser,  or  finisher.3  The  jets  are 
broken  off,  and  the  burs  rubbed  off  on  a  grindstone, 
or  dressing  machine.  Types  with  projections,  like 
the  f  or  j,  are  known  as  kerned  letters,  and  are 
smoothed  on  the  sides  with  a  file,  or  by  a  machine 
in  which  a  rapidly  revolving  wheel  cuts  away  the 
superfluous  metal  without  touching  the  projecting 
face.  The  types  are  then  set  up  in  a  long  row,  and 
firmly  fastened,  face  down,  in  a  grooved  channel 

1  British  Patent  No.  4826  to  from  the  corners,  the  types  cast 
Louis  John  Pouch^e.     See  the  therefrom  would  be  porous  with 
"  Abridgement  of  Specifications  air  bubbles.    Provision  must  be 
relating  to   Printing,"  printed  made  for  escape  of  air  when  the 
by  order   of   the   Commission-  mould  is  suddenly  filled  with  a 
era  of  Patents,   London,   1859,  spurt  of  hot  metal. 

p.  165.  3  In  1838  and  1868  two  patents 

2  The  bur  is  produced  by  a  were  granted  to  David  Bruce, 
slight  and  unavoidable  leakage  Jr.,  for  mechanisms  which  auto- 
of  metal  at  the  angles  of  the  matically  broke  the  jet  and  re- 
mould.    If  the  mould  were  set  moved  the  bur,  but  they  were 
so  tight  that  air  could  not  escape  not  adopted  by  type-founders. 


Dressing  and  Hand-casting  25 

called  the  dressing  rod,  so  that  a  plane,  working 
in  carefully  adjusted  side  bearings,  can  cut  away 
the  irregular  fracture  made  by  the  broken  jet.  This 
operation  leaves  the  types  with  a  shallow  groove 
between  the  feet,  which  allows  each  body  Dressino.  or 
to  rest  on  its  feet,  thereby  securing  uni-  finishing 
f ormity  as  to  height.  The  dresser  then  of  types 
reverses  the  position  of  the  row,  bringing  the  faces 
upward,  and  scrapes  or  files  the  front  and  back  of 
the  types,  deftly  changing  them  from  one  rod  to 
another,  so  that  front  and  back  may  be  exposed  in 
succession.  This  operation  ends  the  smoothing  of 
the  types ;  their  sides  having  been  rubbed  before 
they  were  set  in  the  dressing  rod.  The  line  or  rod 
of  types  is  then  critically  examined  under  a  mag- 
nifying glass,  and  every  type  that  shows  an  im- 
perfection is  thrown  out  and  destroyed.  This  in- 
spection completes  the  work.  The  perfect  types 
are  then  packed  in  paper  convenient  for  handling. 

This  method  of  making  types  has  been  the  method 
of  all  type-founders  before  the  year  1850.  Since 
1890  new  machines  have  been  invented  The  earliest 
which  do  some  of  the  work  automati-  method  of 
cally.  It  is  mainly  in  the  department  *and-castine 
of  casting  the  type  that  the  greatest  improvement 
has  been  developed. 

All  types  were  formerly  cast  by  hand.  The 
caster  took  in  his  left  hand  the  mould,  which  was 
imbedded  in  wood  and  shielded  to  protect  him 
from  being  burned  with  hot  metal.  Then,  taking  a 


26  Process  of  Hand -casting 

spoon  in  his  right  hand,  he  poured  the  fluid  metal 
into  the  mouthpiece  of  the  mould.1  At  the  same 
instant,  with  a  sudden  and  violent  jerk,  he  threw 
up  his  left  hand  to  aid  the  melted  metal  in  mak- 
ing a  forcible  splash  against  the  matrix.  If  the 
mould  was  not  thrown  upward  quickly,  the  metal 
would  not  penetrate  the  matrix.  Hand-casting 
was  hard  and  slow  work:  Fournier  says  that 
the  production  of  a  French  hand-caster  was  from 
two  to  three  thousand  types  a  day;  Moxon  says 
the  English  caster  cast  four  thousand. 

Type-founding  in  some  of  its  processes  is  but 
one  of  the  many  forms  of  printing.  The  counter- 
punch  impresses  the  punch ;  the  punch  impresses 
the  matrix ;  the  matrix  impresses  the  fluid  metal. 

1  In  1811,  Archibald  Binny  of  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  a 
Philadelphia  devised  the  first  more  perfect  face  to  ornamen- 
improvement  in  hand-casting,  tal  type  than  was  possible  with 
He  attached  a  spring  lever  to  the  regular  mould.  This  attach- 
the  mould,  giving  it  a  quick  ment  was  known  as  the  squirt 
return  movement,  which  en-  machine.  Large  ornamental 
abled  the  type-caster  to  double  types  owe  their  popularity  to 
the  old  production.  In  1828,  this  simple  contrivance.  In  1838, 
William  Johnson  of  Long  Isl-  the  same  founder  invented  a 
and  invented  a  type-casting  type-casting  machine,  which 
machine  which  received  the  ac-  was  successfully  used  for  many 
tive  support  of  Elihu  White  years  in  New  York,  Boston,  and 
of  New  York ;  but  the  types  Philadelphia.  In  1843  he  added 
made  by  it  were  too  porous,  other  improvements  of  recog- 
and  the  mechanism,  after  fair  nized  value.  Most  of  the  type- 
trial,  was  abandoned.  About  casting  machines  in  Europe  and 
1834,  David  Bruce,  Jr.,  of  New  America  are  modifications  and 
York  invented  a  hand  force-  adaptations  of  Mr.  Brace's  in- 
pump  attachment  to  the  mould,  vention. 


The  Barth  Type-casting  Machine       27 

For  more  than  forty  years  the  Bruce  type-cast- 
ing machine  or  some  modification  of  it  maintained 
its  popularity,  and  furnished  nearly  all  the  type 
made  during  this  period.  Improvements  of  real 
value  were  gradually  added  to  it  in  different  found- 
ries, but  the  changes  did  not  materially  increase 
its  productiveness.  Yet  it  has  never  been  regarded 
as  a  perfect  machine.  Its  great  defect  is  its  in- 
ability to  make  the  types  perfect.  To  break  the 
jet  off,  to  rub  down  the  feather-edges,  and  to 
plough  out  the  feet,  manual  labor  has  to  be  em- 
ployed, as  in  the  days  of  hand- casting.  At  differ- 
ent times  Johnson  &  Atkinson  of  England,  Toucher 
Freres  of  France,  Hepburn  of  England,  and  Kiis- 
termann  of  Germany,  invented  new  forms  of  type- 
casting machines  that  were  intended  to  produce 
perfect  types,  but  these  machines  have  not  been 
found  entirely  satisfactory  by  the  type-founders  of 
the  United  States.  They  have  been  most  efficient 
in  making  spaces  and  quadrats. 

The  nearest  approach  to  success  has  been  made 
by  Henry  Barth,  who  was  granted  a  patent  Jan- 
uary 24,  1888,  for  a  complete  type-  The  complete 
casting  machine.  He  claims  that  this  machine  of 
machine  produces  one  half  more  than  Henry  Barth 
the  older  machines;  that  it  does  its  work  with 
more  accuracy,  and  that  it  permits  the  use  of  a 
harder  quality  of  metal.  Its  construction  and  its 
processes  differ  radically  from  those  of  the  Bruce 
machine.  One  half  of  the  mould  and  the  matrix 


28        The  Barth  Type-casting  Machine 


The  Barth  complete  type-casting  machine. 

are  fixed  upright  and  made  immovable ;  the  other 
half  of  the  mould  rapidly  slides  to  and  fro  on 
broad  bearings,  releasing  the  type  that  has  been 
founded  and  closing  again  before  the  hot  metal  is 
injected  for  a  new  type.  It  breaks  off  the  jet, 
ploughs  a  groove  between  the  feet,  -rubs  down  the 
feather-edges  at  the  angles,  and  delivers  the  types 
on  the  channel  in  lines  ready  for  inspection. 


Features  of  a  Type 


29 


View  of  body  inclined      Letter  H,  from  a  type     Face  of  the  letter 
to  show  the  face.  of  canon  body.  on  the  body. 


1  counter. 

2  hair-line. 

3  serif. 

4  stem,  or  body-mark. 

5  neck,  or  beard. 


6  shoulder. 

7  pin-mark. 

8  nick. 

9  groove. 
10  feet. 


Spaces  of  Pica 

I     I     I     I     I      B      BB 

Hair.  Five  Four  Three     En         Em         Two-em 
to      to        to       quad-     quad-        quadrat. 


em.    em.     em.       rat. 


rat. 


Three-em 
quadrat. 


Dimensions  of  Bodies 


Non-         Min-          Bre-          Bour-        Long-        Small-         Pica, 
pareil.         ion.          vier.          geois.       primer.        pica. 


30  Features  of  a  Type 

The  face  is  the  letter  or  character  on  the  upper 
end  of  the  type  which  receives  impression.  As 
Features  its  most  notable  feature,  the  word  face  is 
of  a  type  aiso  used  to  distinguish  one  style  of  type 
from  another,  as  broad-face  or  bold-face. 

The  beard,  or  neck,  is  the  slope  between  the  outer 
edge  of  the  face  and  the  shoulder. 

The  shoulder  is  the  flat  top  of  the  small  rec- 
tangle at  the  upper  extremity  of  the  body,  which 
upholds  the  neck  and  face  of  the  type. 

The  counter  is  the  depression  between  the  lines 
of  the  face.  When  the  lines  are  in  high  relief,  the 
counter  is  said  to  be  deep ;  when  low,  the  counter 
is  shallow. 

The  body-mark,  or  stem,  is  the  thick  line  of  the 
face  which  most  clearly  indicates  the  character 
and  the  height  of  the  letter.  It  is  better  known 
among  printers  as  the  thick-stroke. 

The  serif  is  the  short  cross-line  put  as  a  finish 
at  the  ends  of  unconnected  lines.  Its  form  varies 
with  the  style  of  face :  in  old-style  lower-case  let- 
ters it  is  a  blunt  spur  or  a  stubby  triangle ;  in  the 
French  styles  it  is  a  weak  and  delicate  hair-line ;  in 
modern  Scotch-faces  it  is  curved  or  bracketed  on 
the  inner  side,  where  it  meets  the  main  line. 

The  hair-line  is  the  thin  line  of  the  face  —  as  is 
shown  noticeably  in  the  C,  H,  and  M  —  that  con- 
nects or  prolongs  body-marks. 

The  kern  is  that  part  of  the  face  which,  on  a 
few  letters,  projects  beyond  the  body.  The  end, 


Features  of  a  Type  31 

or  beak  of  the  lower-case  f  and  j  and  many  italic 
letters  have  kerns,  and  are  known  as  kerned  letters. 
Kerns  are  also  made  on  the  descending  letters  of 
some  forms  of  bastard  faces. 

The  pin-mark  is  the  small  indentation  on  the 
upper  part  of  the  body  made  by  the  pin  which  is 
of  service  in  dislodging  the  type  from  the  mould. 

The  body  is  that  ]3art  of  the  type  which  is  be- 
tween the  shoulder  and  the  feet.  Early  founders 
and  printers  called  it  the  shank.  The  word  body 
is  also  used  to  define  sizes  or  thicknesses  of  types, 
rules,  leads,  or  furniture :  Pica  body  means  a  thick- 
ness of  about  one-sixth  of  an  inch.  The  sizes  or 
bodies  of  type  are  now  more  accurately  denned  by 
numerical  points. 

The  feet  of  the  type  are  the  two  slight  projec- 
tions upon  which  the  body  rests.  It  is  between 
these  feet  that  the  jet  of  the  type-caster  is  made. 

The  groove  is  the  hollow  left  between  the  feet 
by  the  planing  tool  that  removes  every  trace  of 
the  broken  jet. 

The  nicks  are  the  shallow  grooves  across  the 
lower  part  of  the  body.  In  American,  English,  and 
German  types  the  nicks  are  on  the  front  of  the 
body;  in  French  types  on  the  back.  Nicks  are 
needed  as  plain  guides  to  the  position  in  which  the 
types  should  be  composed,  and  to  prevent  the  mix- 
ing of  different  faces  of  the  same  body.  Roman 
types  of  the  same  foundry  and  of  the  same  body, 
but  of  different  faces,  usually  have  different  nicks. 


32  Constituents  of  Type-metal 

A  font  of  type  is  a  complete  assortment  of  all 
the  characters  that  will  be  required  in  the  compo- 
sition of  an  ordinary  text. 

Sorts  is  the  name  given  to  a  partial  collection  of 
one  or  more  of  the  characters  of  a  font.  It  is  most 
frequently  applied  to  the  types  that  are  deficient. 

Type-metal  is  an  alloy  of  lead,  antimony,  and 
tin,  and  sometimes  of  copper  and  of  other  metals. 
Constituents  Every  type-foun'der  has  his  own  for- 
of  type-metal  mula  which  he  keeps  secret.  Ordi- 
nary type-metal  consists  of  one  hundred  pounds  of 
lead,  forty  pounds  of  antimony,  and  twenty  pounds 
of  tin.1  The  metal  for  small  type  is  harder  than 
that  used  for  large  type ;  leads,  spaces,  and  stereo- 
type plates  are  always  softer :  the  backing  of  elec- 
trotype plates  is  nearly  all  lead.  Soft  metal  is 
also  used  to  prevent  the  breaking  of  kerned  letters. 
Ornamental  types,  which  face  or  fill  the  matrices 
with  difficulty,  are  also  cast  of  a  soft  metal. 

Lead  is  always  the  chief  constituent  of  type- 
metal.  Its  specific  gravity  is  11.352;  it  melts  at 
617°  Fahrenheit.  Its  density,  ductility,  and  low 
fusibility  make  it  easy- working,  but  types  of  pure 
lead  are  too  soft  for  service. 

1  Fournier  says  his  hard  type-        In  Germany  the  formula  for 

metal  contained  one-fifth  of  anti-  cheap  metal  is  seventy  pounds 

mony  to  four-fifths  of  lead;  his  of  lead,  twenty-eight  pounds  of 

soft  type-metal  had  one-eighth  antimony,  and  two  pounds  of 

of  antimony  to    seven-eighths  tin ;  the  formula  for  good  metal 

of  lead.     He  does  not  name  tin.  is  fifty  pounds  of  lead,  forty 

"Manuel  Typographique,"  vol.  pounds  of  antimony,  and  ten 

i.  p.  111.  pounds  of  tin. 


Additions  to  Type-metal  33 

Antimony,  a  brittle  and  fibrous  metal  that  can 
be  crushed  to  fine  powder,  is  used  to  supply  the 
hardness.  Its  specific  gravity  is  6.715;  it  melts 
at  806°  Fahrenheit.  Type-founders  use  the  form 
of  the  metal  known  in  commerce  as  the  regulus 
of  antimony,  or  standard  antimony. 

Tin  is  a  crystalline  but  malleable  metal,  which 
has  a  specific  gravity  of  7.293,  and  melts  at  442° 
Fahrenheit.  It  is  used  to  give  toughness  to  type- 
metal.  It  serves  as  a  solder  between  metals  fus- 
ing at  varying  temperatures.  It  oxidizes  slowly, 
and  prevents  oxidization  in  its  alloys. 

Copper  is  used  in  small  quantity  to  give  still 
greater  tenacity.  Its  specific  gravity  varies  from 
8.8  to  8.95 ;  its  melting  point  is  estimated  at  1996° 
Fahrenheit.  A  very  small  amount  of  copper  in 
type-metal  will  give  it  a  yellowish  pink  tint. 

Moxon  says  that  iron  was  an  ingredient  of  the 
type-metal  made  in  his  time.  Although  melted 
with  lead  and  antimony,  its  most  efficient  service 
was  its  extraction  of  the  sulphur  found  in  crude 
antimony ;  as  then  melted,  it  did  not  in  any  appre- 
ciable quantity  mix  with  the  other  metals.1 


l  The  Mettal  Founders  make  the  sooner.    To  make  the  Iron 

Printing    Letters    of,   is   Lead  Run,     they   mingle    an    equal 

hardend  with  Iron :  Thus  they  weight  of  Antimony  beaten  in 

chuse  stub-Nails   for  the  best  an  Iron-Morter  into  small  pieces 

Iron  to  Melt,   as  well  because  and  stub-Nails  together    .     .     . 

they  are  assured  stub-Nails  are  .    .   .   they  put  for  every  three 

made  of  good  soft  and  tough  Pound  of  Iron  about  five  and 

Iron,  as  because  (they  being  in  twenty  pounds  of  Lead.    "  Me- 

small  pieces  of  Iron)  will  Melt  chanick  Exercises, "pp.  164, 167. 
5 


34  Peculiarities  of  Type-metal 

Zinc  and  some  of  the  newly  discovered  metals 
have  been  tried  as  ingredients  of  type-metal,  but 
zinc  cannot  ^  no  case  w^  success.  Zinc  is  espec- 
be  added  to  ially  objectionable  to  type-founders.  It 

the  alloy          hag  been  f  Qund  thafc  an  addition  of  One 

per  cent,  will  make  the  alloy  so  refractory  and  so 
stringy  that  the  metal  cannot  be  founded.1 

The  most  remarkable  peculiarity  of  type-metal 
is  that  it  shrinks  so  little  after  being  cast,  a  prop- 
Type-metal  erty  n°t  found  to  so  great  a  degree  in 
shrinks  very  any  other  usef ul  alloy.  Harder  metals, 
which  must  be  melted  at  more  intense 
heat,  must  necessarily  shrink  in  a  corresponding 
ratio,  and  this  shrinking  is  injurious  to  accuracy. 
Nor  do  the  harder  metals  so  truly  fill  the  mould, 
or  make  perfect  casts. 

The  density  of  type-metal  is  a  real  advantage. 
Although  melted  at  a  comparatively  low  heat,  it 
fills  the  mould  and  matrix  with  remarkable  solid- 
ity, and  reproduces  the  finer  lines  of  the  matrix 
with  great  exactness. 

Another  great  merit  in  type-metal  is  its  ability 
to  resist  oxidization.  It  takes  much  usage  to  dim 
its  brightness ;  it  does  not  rust  like  iron  or  steel, 
nor  show  corrosion  like  copper  and  brass.  Types 
are  necessarily  exposed  to  the  action  of  air,  water, 
heat,  lye,  oils,  inks,  and  alkaline  solutions,  but 
none  of  these  agents  works  any  serious  injury. 

1 A  European  type-founder  ad-  old  metal  that  contain  any  ad- 
vertises that  he  will  not  only  mixture  of  zinc,  but  will  prose- 
refuse  types  brought  to  him  as  cute  the  seller  for  damages. 


Durability  of  Types  35 

These  useful  properties  are  gained  only  at  the 
expense  of  durability.  The  hardest  types  soon 
wear  out.  When  morning  newspapers  Types  lack 
of  large  circulation  were  printed  direct  durability 
from  the  type,  it  was  often  found  necessary  to 
renew  the  fonts  after  a  few  months  of  service.  To 
jobbing  type  the  damage  by  wear  is  even  greater : 
the  beauty  of  script  and  hair-line  types  is  some- 
times destroyed  by  one  month  of  service. 

Ever  since  types  were  invented,  founders  have 
studied  to  make  them  harder  and  more  durable. 
Great  improvement  has  been  effected,  . 

7     Difficulties 

but  a  point  seems  to  have  been  reached    preventing 
beyond  which   additional   hardness   is    tneuseof 

,  n  -,-.  n     hard  types 

no  longer  an  advantage.  Every  good 
founder  could  make  his  type  harder,  but  only  at 
vastly  increased  expense.  A  harder  alloy  would 
require  greater  heat  to  melt  it;  the  metals  used 
would  be  more  expensive;  the  moulds  and  ma- 
chines would  wear  out  rapidly;  the  speed  would 
be  slower,  and  the  type  not  so  accurate.1 

1  French  type-metal  as  made  penetrate  the  plates  of  lead 

at  the  beginning  of  this  century  which  were  then  made  to  serve 

had  50  kilogrammes  of  lead  and  for  the  stereotype  moulds.  For 

18  kilogrammes  of  regulus  of  printing-types  this  mixture  was 

antimony.  materially  "modified." 

Firmin-Didot  experimentally  In  1840,  M.  Colson  of  Paris 

made  use  of  a  mixture  for  added  iron  and  tin  as  ingre- 

stereotyping  purposes  of  20  dients  of  type-metal.  ("L'lm- 

kilogrammes  of  copper,  30  kilo-  primerie,  etc.  Rapport  du 

grammes  of  tin,  and  50  kilo-  XVII®  jury,"  by  M.  Ambroise 

grammes  of  regulus  of  anti-  Firmin-Didot,  Paris,  1854.)  None 

mony.  Types  made  from  this  of  these  mixtures  is  now  in  use 

mixture  were  hard  enough  to  in  France  or  elsewhere. 


36  The  Wear  of  Types 

The  durability  of  types  is  materially  affected 
by  size  and  cut  of  face.     With  kind  usage  a  font 

Durability  of  pica  may  receive  a  million  impres- 
depends  sions  before  it  will  be  condemned;  with 
on  the  size  the  same  treatment  a  font  of  pearl  may 

of  the  face     ,  -,11          ,1  i         -,       -, 

be  worn  out  with  less  than  a  hundred 
thousand  impressions.  Yet  the  pearl  is  always  of 
a  harder  metal.  The  difference  in  durability  is 
caused  by  the  difference  in  face.  In  the  size  of 
pica,  the  counters  are  broad  and  deep ;  the  hair- 
line and  body-mark  will  wear  down  and  flatten 
out  to  a  great  degree  before  the  face  will  show 
muddiness  or  illegibility:  in  the  smaller  size  of 
pearl,  the  counters  are  necessarily  shallow;  the 
hair-lines  and  body-marks  are  thinner  and  closer 
together.  It  requires  more  impression  to  print 
the  pearl  properly;  this  impression,  meeting  with 
less  resistance,  soon  wears  down  the  thinner  lines. 
The  amount  of  wear  that  types  may  receive  can- 
not be  stated  in  figures.  One  printer  will  con- 
The  wear  sider  them  worn  out  when  another  will 
of  types  think  them  capable  of  further  service. 
Brevier  and  minion  have  sometimes  received  two 
millions  of  readable  impressions  upon  newspaper 
work,  but  the  thick  press- work  from  types  worn 
by  more  than  one  million  of  impressions  would 
be  accepted  only  by  a  newspaper  publisher.  Many 
book  publishers  would  reject  small  types  that  had 
received  but  three  hundred  thousand  impressions. 
For  the  finest  letter-press  work,  the  limit  would  be 


Wear  made  by  Machines  37 

put  very  low.  Typography  with  characters  en- 
tirely faultless  can  be  had  only  from  new  type. 
For  type-founder's  specimens  and  for  sumptuous 
books  new  types  are  always  provided.  They  are 
never  reset,  but  are  condemned  to  the  melting- 
kettle  after  their  first  use. 

The  repeated  handling  of  types  is  as  injurious 
as  the  impression  of  the  machine.  One  million  of 
acceptable  impressions  may  be  obtained  Repeate(i 
from  small  types  skilfully  made-ready  if  handling 
these  impressions  are  taken  from  one  mJurious 
form  ;  but  if  the  types  are  repeatedly  distributed 
and  reset  for  many  different  forms  they  will  not 
furnish  one-fifth  of  that  number.  The  wear  of 
types  in  the  composing-room  is  much  greater 
than  is  commonly  supposed.  They  are  bruised 
and  battered  in  distribution  and  in  composition , 
in  making-up,  and  especially  by  planing-down 
and  correction.  The  moulding  process  of  stereo- 
typing is  remarkably  injurious.  Proving  with  a 
brush,  or  moulding  by  the  papier-mache  method, 
is  more  destructive,  in  most  cases,  than  any  kind 
of  printing  machine.  Nor  can  a  more  destructive 
agent  be  found  than  the  stiff  scrubbing-brush 
which  is  used,  often  by  unskilful  hands,  to  clean 
the  forms  from  ink  after  they  have  left  the  press. 

Cylinder  presses  and  type-revolving  machines 
have  been  adjudged  as  very  injurious  to  types.  The 
noticeable  wear  of  types  on  these  presses  is  due 
more  to  the  omission  of  making-ready  —  which 


38  Causes  of  Wear 

in  the  case  of  a  morning  newspaper  is  unavoid- 
able— than  to  any  inherent  defect  in  the  machine, 
wear  caused  Cylindrical  pressure  need  not,  yet  with 
by  neglect  in  careless  hands  it  often  does,  grind  off 
presswork  gerif  ^^  hair-line  much  quicker  than 
pressure  of  platens.  But  types  well  worn  can  be 
used  under  cylinders  longer  than  under  platens. 
Letters  that  have  been  rounded  on  the  edges  to 
such  an  extent  that  vertical  pressure  cannot  give 
a  readable  impression  are  made  fairly  legible  when 
they  are  printed  on  a  rotary  or  a  type-revolving 
Rapid  wear  machine.  This  wear  on  types  is  often 
avoidable  avoidable.  A  careful  compositor  and 
a  skilful  pressman  can  make  types  do  twice  the 
service  they  give  under  the  hands  of  careless  work- 
men. The  modern  style  of  making-ready,  which 
dispenses  with  the  thick  woolen  blankets  that 
scrape  and  grind  off  the  edges  of  the  types,  is  of 
as  great  advantage  to  them  as  it  is  to  the  appear- 
ance of  the  printed  work.  On  fine  work  a  press- 
man is  now  required  to  make,  by  overlays  and 
underlays,  the  types  practically  parallel  with  the 
impression  surface,  so  that  the  printed  sheet  shall 
show  on  the  back  only  faint  marks  of  impression. 
Yet  careful  making-ready  is  but  a  feeble  safeguard 
if  paper  has  not  been  well  selected  and  prepared. 
Rough-faced  hand-made  linen  papers,  half-beaten 
straw  or  wood  papers,  and  all  papers  that  are  laid, 
uncalendered,  or  of  rough  or  ribbed  surface,  are, 
when  printed  dry,  especially  destructive  to  types. 


Advantages  of  Stereotyping  39 

The  durability  of  types  is  also  affected  by  their 
uncleanliness  and  the  want  of  care  they  may  re- 
ceive. If  they  are  not  thoroughly  DuraMlity 
cleansed  immediately  after  taking  promoted  by 
proof  or  on  leaving  press,  if  dust  and  cleanlines8 
paper  fibers  are  allowed  to  settle  in  the  counters 
and  harden  with  the  drying  ink,  and  if  the  sedi- 
ment of  the  lye  and  turpentine  used  for  cleansing 
is  allowed  to  collect — a  thick,  tenacious  deposit 
will  soon  be  formed  which  cannot  be  removed 
without  nearly  destroying  the  type.  The  count- 
ers of  a  font  of  type  so  neglectfully  treated  will 
soon  become  filled  up,  and  this  may  happen  be- 
fore the  stems  or  the  serifs  have  been  appreciably 
thickened  by  the  impression  of  the  press. 

The  art  of  stereotyping  is  used  as  much  to  save 
needless  wear  of  types  as  to  save  the  expense  of 
repeated  composition.  It  adds  nothing  to  the  du- 
rability of  the  types,  but  it  withdraws  them  from 
use,  and  furnishes  a  cheaper  and  more  stereotyping 
serviceable  substitute.  A  mould  in  saves  wear 
plaster  or  prepared  paper  is  taken  from  a  page  of 
composed  type,  and  this  mould,  when  dry  and  hard, 
serves  as  the  matrix  for  making  the  stereotype. 
The  mould  is  then  filled  with  melted  type-metal, 
which,  when  hard,  is  a  proper  duplicate  of  the  face 
of  the  composed  type.  The  plate  is  thinner  than 
the  types,  and  costs  much  less,  both  for  metal 
and  for  labor.  It  answers  every  purpose  as  well, 
and  thus  saves  the  types  from  needless  wear. 


40  Benefits  of  Stereotyping 

A  large  octavo  page  of  long-primer  type  weighs 
about  ten  pounds  and  its  types  are  worth  about 
three  dollars.  The  stereotype  or  electrotype  plate 
taken  from  it  weighs  about  twenty  ounces,  and 
costs  about  forty  cents,  but  the  metal  therein  has 
some  permanent  value.  As  stereotyping  not  only 
saves  the  type  from  needless  wear,  but  also  saves 
the  expense  of  recomposition,  it  is  freely  made 
use  of  by  all  publishers  in  America.  Its  advan- 
tages are  not  confined  to  book  printers ;  it  is  of 
decided  economy  in  the  printing  of  morning  news- 
papers, when  duplicated  forms  have  to  be  put  on 
two  or  more  presses.  Large  editions  of  those  pub- 
lications could  not  be  printed  at  all  without  the 
aid  of  stereotyping.  Electrotyping,  another  pro- 
cess for  securing  the  same  result,  has  practically 
supplanted  the  stereotyping  of  book  work. 

If  the  type  used  in  printing  a  book  is  distrib- 
uted before  stereotyping,  of  course  the  composi- 
Benefits  of  tion  is  not  available  for  even  one  more 
stereotyping  edition;  but  if  the  forms  have  been 
stereotyped,  the  labor  of  composition  is  saved  for 
any  number  of  editions,  because  the  plates  used  on 
the  first  edition  may  be  used  on  twenty  successive 
editions  without  repeating  the  expense  of  the  orig- 
inal composition.  After  stereotyping,  the  types 
may  be  distributed  and  rearranged  in  many  other 
combinations.  The  plates  are  unalterable.  The 
advantages  of  stereotyping  or  electro  typing  are 
equally  beneficial  to  both  printer  and  publisher, 


Process  of  Copper-facing  41 

saving  the  type  of  one  and  lessening  the  expenses 
of  the  other.  In  the  United  States  all  books  that 
may  be  reprinted  are  electrotyped. 

The  process  invented  in  1851  by  Dr.  Newton 
of  New  York,  which  is  known  as  copper-facing, 
is  of  value  in  making  types  more  process  of 
durable.  The  faces  of  the  types  to  copper-facing 
be  treated  are  immersed  in  a  solution  of  copper. 
Under  the  influence  of  a  galvanic  current  atoms 
of  copper  are  deposited  on  them,  covering  every 
part  with  a  thin  film.  This  deposition  continues 
from  three  to  twelve  hours,  according  to  the 
strength  of  the  battery  and  the  nature  of  the 
work.  When  taken  from  the  bath  the  types  so 
exposed  are  ready  for  use.  Types  that  have  been 
copper-faced  are  made  more  durable,  not  by  the 
superior  hardness  of  the  copper,  for  the  coating 
is  too  thin  to  offer  any  great  resistance  to  im- 
pression, but  by  its  superior  tenacity.  The  stems 
and  delicate  serifs  may  be  flattened  under  pres- 
sure almost  as  readily  as  before  the  operation  of 
copper-facing,  but  they  cannot  be  broken  or 
gapped  as  easily. 

The  process  of  copper-facing  differs  from  that 
of  electrotyping  in  a  very  important  point.  In 
the  electrotype,  the  atoms  of  copper  Copper.facmg 
attach  themselves  to,  and  duplicate,  differs  from 
the  smooth  face  of  the  mould,  and  this  electrotrc>ine 
smooth-faced  duplicate  becomes  the  printing  sur- 
face. But  in  copper-facing  these  atoms  attach 
6 


42  Hardness  of  Type-metal 

themselves  to  the  smooth  surface  of  the  types, 
and  adhere  to  it,  leaving  the  rough,  crystallized 
upper  side  of  the  deposit  as  the  printing  surface. 
This  rough  surface  is  often  objectionable.  The 
earliest  impressions  from  copper-faced  type  are 
never  as  perfect  as  those  from  the  uncoppered 
type.  There  is  always  more  or  less  thickness  and 
unevenness  of  face,  which  can  be  removed  only 
by  continued  use.  For  newspapers  copper-facing 
is  of  great  value ;  for  the  finest  work  it  is  not  to 
be  so  highly  commended.  The  expense  of  copper- 
facing  a  font  of  roman  types  is  about  one-sixth 
of  the  type-founder's  charge  for  the  type. 

Hardness  of  metal  is  usually  considered  as  of 
great  importance  in  types.  The  quality  of  the 
The  test  of  metal  ig  roughly,  but  not  always  accu- 
iiardness  in  rately,  tested  by  breaking  a  type.  If  this 
type-metal  ]3en js  verv  muc]1  before  breaking,  show- 
ing a  ragged  fracture,  or  if  it,  when  whittled,  curls 
up  in  unbroken  rings,  the  metal  is  soft.  If  it  breaks 
off  short,  after  much  resistance,  showing  a  close, 
crystalline  fracture,  the  metal  is  hard ;  but  if  it, 
when  whittled,  crumbles  at  a  slight  touch  the  metal 
may  be  hard  but  is  deficient  in  tenacity.  Great 
hardness,  without  tenacity,  is  as  serious  a  fault 
as  too  much  softness.  Types  that  easily  break 
when  dropped  upon  the  floor,  or  that  have  their 
serifs  and  hair-lines  gapped  by  planing-down  or 
by  rubbing  with  a  brush,  betray  an  excess  of 
antimony  and  a  deficiency  of  tin  or  copper. 


Even  Lining  of  Types  43 

Solidity  is  equally  important.  It  is  a  material 
fault  if  the  broken  types  reveal  minute  bubbles 
or  porousness,  either  in  the  face  or  the  solidity 
body.  This  defect  was  common  to  all  types  of  type 
made  by  the  early  casting  machines  which  were 
imperfect,  but  it  is  now  exceptional. 

As  all  the  characters  of  a  font  of  type  are  usually 
cast  in  but  one  mould,  which  is  tested  daily  and 
oftener,  there  is  not  much  liability  to  inaccuracy 
in  the  body  of  a  font  so  cast.1  But  when  a  large 
font  of  types  is  cast  in  haste  from  two  or  more 
matched  moulds  there  is  an  increased  liability  to 
error.  Sorts,  or  additions  to  a  font,  made  at  any 
time  after  the  first  casting,  may  be  slightly  inac- 
curate. Types  may  be  cast  thinner  at  the  foot 
than  at  the  shoulder,  and  this  fault  may  be  in- 
creased in  rubbing  down,  or  finishing;  but  bottled 
types,  as  these  are  called,  are  now  unusual. 

Every  letter  in  a  font  should  present  the  appear- 
ance of  standing  even  in  line  with  all  its  fellows. 
The  maintaining  of  this  evenness  of  Even  lining  of 
line,  apparently  so  simple,  is  one  of  importance 
the  nice  parts  of  a  type-founder's  work.  One  rea- 
son, but  not  the  only  one,  why  the  Latin  text, 
Quousque  tandem  abutere,  Catilina,  was  used  so 

]At  the  International  Exhi-  in  a  chase  in  horizontal  position, 

bition  of  1851,  a  prominent  type-  upheld  by  supports  one  at  each 

founder  of  London  exhibited  a  corner  of  the  chase,  so  that  each 

form  of  pearl  types  containing  type  was  exposed  to  the  air  on 

220,000  characters.    For  twenty-  both  face  and  feet.   The  casting 

one  weeks  this  form  was  kept  was  so  true  that  no  type  fell  out. 


44  Uneven  Lining  of  Types 

frequently  by  type-founders  in  their  specimens, 
was  that  Latin,  as  compared  with  English,  had 
an  excess  of  small  and  a  deficiency  of  ascending 
and  descending  letters.  Types  composed  in  Latin 
had  a  more  symmetrical  look  and  an  evener  line 
than  could  be  produced  from  an  English  text. 
Modern  founders,  confident  of  their  superior  abil- 
ity, do  not  hesitate  to  show  their  types  in  English. 

These  types  show  an  uneven 
lining  in  the  letters  n  and  e; 
the  n  too  high,  the  e  too  low. 

The  deviation  in  lining  here  shown  is  enough  to 
destroy  the  appearance  of  the  font. 

Uneven  lining  will  be  most  frequently  noticed 
in  sorts,  or  the  new  letters  that  are  cast  to  supple- 
ment a  deficient  old  font.  The  new  letters  may 
be  made  out  of  line  by  the  founders,  but 
this  rarely  happens  when  lining  letters  are  AAA 
sent.  The  uneven  line  is  more  frequently  T"TT 
caused  by  accretions  to  the  body  of  the  old  ^AA 
type,  which  have  been  made  through  want  AAA 
of  cleansing  from  dust  and  ink.  Before  AAA 
new  types  are  mixed  with  old,  they  should  A^A 
be  tested  by  setting  them  in  vertical  lines,  ^  .  —• 
between  rows  of  old  type,  as  shown  in  this 
illustration. 


Bad  Fitting  of  Matrices  45 

The  fitting-up  of  type,  which  is  the  founder's 
term  for  adjusting  the  face  upon  the  body,  is  of 
highest  importance.  The  set  of  the  mould  is  al- 
tered with  almost  every  change  of  the  matrix,  and 

In  these  lines  the  e  has  too 
much  space  at  the  left,  the 
a  too  much  at  the  right;  the 
t  is  too  close  at  the  right, 
the  h  too  close  at  the  left. 

if  this  alteration  is  not  intelligently  done,  some 
types  will  be  too  wide,  and  others  too  narrow.  A 
font  of  type  so  fitted-up  will  exhibit  ungainly  gaps 
between  some  letters,  and  a  confusing  proximity 
between  others,  as  is  shown  in  illustration  above. 
Bad  fitting  is  sometimes  shown  in  letters  the 
stems  or  thick-strokes  of  which  lean  slightly  from 
a  vertical  line,  either  to  the  right  or  to  the  left. 

In  these  lines  the  letter  t 
leans  to  the  right,  and  the 
letter  e  leans  to  the  left. 

This  fault  is  exceptional  in  roman,  but  is  not  at  all 
infrequent  in  some  of  the  older  fonts  of  italic. 


46  Unequal  Height  of  Types 

A  bad  fitting-up  of  matrices  to  the  mould  is 
occasionally  shown  in  the  unequal  heights  in  line 
of  the  different  characters  of  the  same  font.  This 
irregularity  is  seldom  noticeable  in  the  types  of  an 
entirely  new  f ont,  but  it  may  and  often  does  occur 
in  the  sorts  or  additions  cast  subsequently. 

In  these  lines  the  letter  o  is 
too  high ;  the  letter  t  is  too 
low;  the  letter  h  is  tilted  out 
of  perpendicular  on  one  side. 

Unequal  height  is  a  more  frequent  fault  since  a 
recent  change  in  the  height  to  paper  of  type-bodies 

Differences  from  -9166  to  -918  inch-  The  difference 
in  height  of  but  one  five-hundredth  of  an  inch  may 
be  almost  imperceptible  when  types  of 
these  heights  are  printed  together  on  damp  paper 
against  an  elastic  impression  surface,  but  it  is  a 
fatal  fault  when  these  types  are  printed  on  dry 
paper  against  a  hard  surface.  To  bring  up  the  low 
types  the  over-high  types  will  be  crushed.  A  new 
font  which  contains  characters  of  unequal  heights 
to  paper  will  show  from  the  beginning  many  of 
the  blemishes  of  a  worn-out  font.  Unequal  heights 
to  paper  should  be  watched  for  in  all  types  cast 
from  old  electrotyped  matrices  that  have  been  un- 
equally worn.  The  process  of  copper-facing  tends 


Good  Mechanical  Finish  47 

to  make  types  of  unequal  heights  by  an  occa- 
sional uneven  deposit  of  copper. 

An  improper  fitting  of  the  face  on  the  body  is  a 
very  serious  fault.  For  its  legibility  each  character 
needs  a  fair  relief  of  white  space  outside  its  stems. 
The  distance  between  the  stems  of  all  the  types  in 
a  word  should  be  reasonably  uniform.  As  a  rule 
this  distance  is  most  satisfactory  when  the  space 
between  the  stems  of  meeting  letters  is  about  the 
same  as  that  between  the  stems  of  the  letter  m. 
This  is  not  always  practicable,  for  letters  are  irregu- 
lar as  to  shape,  and  a  nice  discretion  must  be  ex- 
ercised by  the  fitter-up,  who  has  to  consider  the 
combinations  of  these  irregular  shapes.  As  a  rule 
condensed  type  and  small  type  need  close  fitting ; 
fat  and  expanded  type  a  wider  fitting. 

The  types  of  this  column  are        The   types   of   this    column 

close-fitted,  but  they  are  as  read-  are   wide-fitted.     Each    letter 

able  in  solid  as  in  leaded  com-  is  separated  from  its  fellows, 

position.    Nor  is  the  appearance  but   the    composition   has   an 

of  the  composition  damaged  by  uninviting  appearance.     It  is 

close  or  thin  spacing.    Each  let-  not  easier  to  read.     It  cannot 

ter  is  distinct,  although  some  let-  be  thin  spaced  nor  set  solid  to 

ters  nearly  touch  their  fellows  at  advantage,  nor  is  it  improved 

extreme  points.  in  any  way  by  wide  leading. 

The  mechanical  finish  should  be  of  the  highest 
order.  'Good  types  should  be  so  carefully  rubbed 
and  dressed  that  there  will  be  no  burs  Good  finish  is 
or  roughness  on  the  edges  to  cut  the  important 
fingers  of  the  compositor.  The  shoulders  should 
be  low  enough  on  the  body  to  prevent  their  being 
blackened  by  the  inking  roller,  and  to  allow  the 


48  Choice  of  Face 

kerned  letters  to  lap  over  without  interference. 
The  kerns  should  be  well  supported  so  that  they 
will  not  break  under  proper  treatment.  The  nicks 
should  be  clearly  denned,  and  different  either  in 
number  or  in  position  from  those  of  other  faces  or 
styles  of  the  same  body.  The  hair-lines  and  serifs 
should  have  a  sloping  base,  to  give  them  a  proper 
support.  The  counters  should  be  deep  enough  to 
prevent  their  quick  filling-up  with  ink  and  paper 
dust. 

Italic  type  needs  special  examination:  blemishes 
in  fitting-up  are  more  frequent  in  italic  than  in 
italic  must  tne  roman  of  which  it  is  the  mate.  A 
mate  with  font  of  italic  should  not  only  be  in  line 
the  roman  wfifr  fae  roman,  but  should  show  all  its 
features  as  far  as  the  change  of  face  will  permit. 
In  the  early  practice  of  type-making,  one  face  of 
italic  was  often  made  to  serve  for  two  or  more 
faces  of  roman.  This  practice  has  not  been  en- 
tirely discontinued.  A  light-faced  italic  is  some- 
times mated  with  a  heavy-faced  roman,  a  condensed 
italic  with  a  round-faced  roman,  making  a  plain 
change  of  shade  or  of  shape  on  the  printed  page 
where  they  are  used  together. 

The  choice  of  the  face  is  usually  decided  by  its 
appearance  on  the  specimen  sheet,  but  some  re- 
The  choice  gard  should  be  paid  to  its  mechanical 
of  the  face  adaptation  to  the  work  for  which  it  is 
designed.  The  appearance  of  a  face  will  vary 
with  methods  of  presswork.  That  which  is  just 


Types  that  Withstand  Wear  49 

bold  enough  in  the  carefully  printed  specimen  of 
the  type-founder  will  be  too  bold  in  the  news- 
paper when  printed  with  soft  ink  and  upon  coarse 
and  moist  paper;  and  one  that  seems  light  enough 
on  damp  paper  is  altogether  too  light  and  weak 
when  printed  on  dry  paper. 

Whatever  face  may  be  selected,  it  should  be 
mechanically  well  cut:  the  angles  should  be  true; 
the  serifs  of  uniform  length ;  the  body-  Types  mugt 
marks  of  uniform  width ;  and  a  visible  fce  pleasing 
harmony  should  pervade  the  font.  A  inama88 
perfect  font  of  types  should  produce  a  pleasing 
general  effect  in  any  combination  of  characters. 

This  face  wears 
This  endures 

It  is  not  enough  that  each  character  seems  pleas- 
ing when  examined  apart  from  its  mates ;  it  must 
also  be  pleasing  in  composition.  This  cannot  be 
if  all  the  difficulties  of  combination  and  fitting 
have  not  been  foreseen  and  provided  for.  Rudely 
cut  or  badly  fitted  type  will  mar  the  effect  of  the 
best  composition  and  presswork. 

The  durability  of  type  is  affected  by  the  press 
on  which  it  is  printed.    Types  with  long  ascenders 


50       Bold-faced  and  Light-faced  Types 

and  descenders,  and  with  very  long  and  sharp 
hair-lines  and  serifs,  are  not  well  suited  for  cylin- 
ders or  for  type-revolving  machines,  because  all  the 
force  of  the  impression  is  at  regular  intervals  spent 

A  face  with  long 
and  feeble  serifs 

on  the  serifs  and  edges  of  these  projecting  letters. 
To  secure  the  highest  durability  on  cylinder  ma- 
chines, types  with  short  ascenders  and  descenders, 
broad  faces,  and  stubby  serifs  should  be  selected. 
Bold,  black-faced  types  are  not,  for  general  use, 
as  durable  or  even  as  readable  as  those  that  have 

A  bold-face  with 
hair-lines  and 
serifs  too  weak 

lighter  stems,  firmer  serifs,  and  a  more  open  ap- 
pearance. The  common  opinion  that  all  light-faced 
types  are  necessarily  fragile  is  derived  from  an 
experience  obtained  when  letter-cutting  was  not  as 


Why  Light-faces  wear  Well  51 

skilfully  done  as  it  is  now.  The  light-faced  types 
of  thirty  years  ago  wer£  made  with  hair-lines  and 
serifs  that  were  long,  sharp,  and  feebly  Boid-faced 
supported,  that  gapped  with  slight  abra-  and  iight- 
sion,  and  that  broke  off  altogether  under  faced  types 
an  uneven  impression.  Approved  modern  light- 
faced  types  are  radically  different :  the  hair-lines 
are  supported  by  broad  bases,  and  the  serifs  are 
strengthened  with  bracket-like  curves  where  they 
join  the  stems  or  body-marks.  These  hair-lines 
will  thicken  very  little  with  continual  wear,  and 
are  not  liable  to  gap  or  to  break  down. 

A  light-face  that  has 
both  firm  hair-lines 
and  bracketed  serifs 

In  deciding  upon  the  comparative  durability  of 
a  light-faced  and  a  heavy-faced  type,  two  points 
must  be  considered:  the  force  neces-  Ligi!t-faCed 
sary  to  secure  a  perfect  impression,  and  types  may 
the  resistance  opposed  by  the  type  to  be  dural)le 
that  force.  They  necessarily  increase  and  decrease 
in  inverse  ratio.  A  solid  tint-block  presents  a 
greater  resistance  and  requires  more  impression 
than  the  same  surface  of  type ;  a  page  of  antique 
type  cannot  be  faced  with  the  same  impression 


52  Why  Light-faces  wear  Well 

that  will  fairly  print  a  page  of  script  The  denser 
or  broader  the  face,  the^freater  is  the  resistance, 
and  the  stronger  must  be  the  impression.  Upon 
a  page  of  bold  roman  type  this  impression  must 
be  felt  equally  on  the  hair-lines  and  body-marks. 
When  an  elastic  blanket  is  forced  by  impression 
into  the  counters  and  around  the  edges  of  each 
face,  the  hair-lines  will  be  gapped,  the  serifs  will 
be  gradually  broken  down,  and  the  surface  of  the 
body-marks  will  be  rounded  off.  The  resistance  of 
light-faced  type  is  less  ;  so  less  force  is  required  in 

A  bold-face  with 
short  serifs  that 
soon  show  wear 

impression,  and  it  is  more  equally  divided  between 
hair-lines  and  body-marks.  Alight- faced  type  prop- 
erly cut  will  lose  its  sharpness  sooner,  but  it  will 
wear  down  with  more  evenness,  and  will  present 
a  clear  outline  when  the  hair-line  of  a  bold-faced 
letter  has  been  worn  out,  and  the  character  can  be 
identified  only  by  its  stem  or  body-mark. 


II 


The  Names  of  the  Leading  Sizes  of  Types 

JHEN  the  faces  of  text-types  were 
limited  to  roman,  italic,  and. black- 
letter,  one  or  two  words  described 
the  size,  or  body,  and  another  word 
denned  the  face.  The  multiplica- 
tion of  faces  now  compels  founders  to  make  names 
longer  and  more  descriptive.  The  features  are 
usually  given  in  this  order:  (1)  The  body  or  size 
of  the  type,  as  "  Pica."  (2)  The  style  or  face  of 
the  type,  as  "Pica  gothic."  (3)  The  ornament  or 
fashion  of  the  type,  as  "  Pica  gothic  ornamented." l 
(4)  The  shape  of  the  type,  as  "  Pica  gothic  orna- 
mented condensed." 

The  names  of  the  more  important  bodies  or 
sizes  of  types  are  given  in  the  following  tables : 


l  See  a  following  chapter  for  remarks  on  different  styles. 

53 


54 


American,  and  English  Names 


-  American  - 


English 


New  Name  Old  Name 

60-point  ....  Five-line  pica Five-line  pica 

48-point Canon,  or  four-line. .  Canon,  or  four-line 

44-point  ....  Meridian    Two-line  double  pica 

40-point  ....  Double  paragon 

36-point  .    . .  Double  great-primer  Two-line  great-primer 

32-point     . .  .  Four-line  brevier 

30-point   Five-line  nonpareil 

28-point Double  english    Two-line  english 

24-point Double  pica Two-line  pica 

22-point  ....  Double  small-pica  . .  Double  pica 

20-point  ....  Paragon   Paragon 

18-point  ....  Great-primer Great-primer 

1 6-point Columbian  Two-line  brevier 

14-point  ....  English    English 

12-point Pica  Pica 

11-point  ....  Small-pica  Small-pica        „ 

10-point  ....  Long-primer  Long-primer 

9-point  ....  Bourgeois    Bourgeois 

8-point  ....  Brevier   Brevier 

7-point  Minion Minion 

6^-point Minionette Emerald 

6-point Nonpareil    Nonpareil 

5^-point  ....  Agate    Ruby 

5-point Pearl   Pearl 

4^-point  ....  Diamond Diamond 

4-point Brilliant  Brilliant 

31-point  

3-point Excelsior Minikin 


French,  and  German  Names  55 


-  French — —  German 


New  Name  Old  Name  Old  Name 

Corps  72 Triple-canon Kleine  Sabon 

Corps  60 Grobe  Missal 

Corps  56 Double-canon 

Corps  52 Missal 

Corps  48 Kleine  Missal 

Corps  44  ....  Gros-canon 

Corps  42 Grobe  Canon 

Corps  36  .  .      Trismegiste Canon 

Corps  32 Kleine  Canon 

Corps  28  ....  Petit-canon    Doppel  Mittel 

Corps  24  ....  Palestine Doppel-Cicero 

Corps  22  ....  Gros-parangon 

Corps  20 Petit-parangon  . . .  Text 

Corps  18  ....  Gros-romain 

Corps  16  ....  Gros-texte  Tertia 

Corps  14  ....  Saint  augustin  . . .  Mittel 

Corps  12  ....  Cicero .      Cicero 

Corps  11 Philosophic    Brevier 

Corps  10  ....  Petit-romain Corpus,  or  Garmond 

Corps  9     ...  Gaillarde Borgis,  or  Bourgeois 

Corps  8     Petit-texte  .......  Petit 

Corps  7     ....  Mignone Colonel 

Corps  6£ 

Corps  6     ....  Nompareille Nonpareille,  or  Nonpareil 

Corps  5£ 

Corps  5     ....  Parisienne Perl 

Corps  4£   ....  Diamant 

Corps  4     Diamant 

Corps  3     ....  Semi-nompareille 

In  France  the  old  names  have  typography,  and  even  in  some 

been  out  of  use  for  many  years,  comparatively  modern  specimen 

but  it  seems  necessary  to  repeat  books  of  French  type-founders, 

them  here,  for  they  are  to  be  In  Germany  the  use  of  numeri- 

found  in  all  the  early  books  of  cal  names  is  limited. 


56      Italian,  Spanish,  and  Dutch  Names 


Italian 
Imperiale 

Eeale 

Ducale 

Corale  

Canone 

Sopracanoncino  . 

Canoncino  

Palestina 

Ascendonica 

Parangone  

Testo 

Soprasilvio 

Silvio 

Lettura 

Filosofia 

Garamone    

Garamoncino  .... 

Testino 

Mignone  

Nompariglia   .... 
Parmigianina   . . . 

Diamante  

Occhio  di  mosca  . 


Cinco  Lectura 
Cuatro  Lectura 

Canon  

Doble  Parangona  . 

Doble  Texto    

Doble  Atanasia  . . 
Doble  Lectura  . . . 
Doble  Lecturita  .  . 

Parangona  

Texto 

San  Agustin 

Atanasia 

Lectura 

Lecturita  

Entredos 

Medio  Texto  

Breviario   

Minona,  or  Glosilla 

Nomparell 

Perla 

Diamante . 

Brillante 


Dutch 


Parys  Kanon 

Groote  Kanon 

Kanon 

Dubbelde  Augustijn 

Dubbelde  Mediaan 

Assendonica 

Paragon 

Tekst 

Augustijn 

Mediaan 

Dessendiaan 

Garmond 

Burgeois,  or  Galjar 

Brevier 

Collonel 

Nonpareil 

Parel,  or  Joly 

Diamant,  or  Eobijn 


In  Italy,  Spain,  and  Holland 
the  numerical  names  of  types  on 
the  point  system  have  been  par- 
tially adopted,  but  they  are  not 
yet  so  fully  established  as  to 
put  all  old  names  out  of  use. 
These  Italian  names  have  been 


collected  from  the  "Manuale 
Tipografico  "  of  Bodoni  (Parma, 
1818) ;  the  Spanish  and  Dutch 
names  have  been  gathered  from 
specimen  books,  and  from  in- 
formation £iven  to  the  author 
by  Spanish  compositors. 


Bastard  Types  57 

In  the  preceding  tables  an  attempt  has  been 
made  to  arrange  the  names  given  to  types  by  each 
nation  in  line  with  those  given  to  similar  variations 
sizes  by  other  nations ;  but  a  similarity  of  in  bodies 
name,  or  position  on  the  same  line,  does  not  mean 
that  types  so  named  or  placed  are  of  exactly  the 
same  body.  Large  allowances  must  be  made  for 
variations.  In  making  a  comparison  of  types  or 
sizes  from  various  countries,  the  difference  in  bodies 
below  pica  is  too  slight  to  be  noticed  by  an  in- 
expert, but  in  those  larger  than  pica  the  differ- 
ence may  be  marked,  and  the  similarity  of  names 
may  be  seriously  misleading. 

Types  have  been  made  and  named  everywhere 
without  system.  The  exceptions  are  few.  Paragon 
and  nonpareil  have  virtually  the  same  name  in 
the  foundries  of  all  nations  cited;  canon,  pearl, 
and  diamond  are  almost  as  widely  known. 

The  list  given  comprises  all  the  bodies  known  by 
simple  names.  All  sizes  above  canon  are  called  by 
their  multiples  of  pica,  as  five-line,  nine-line,  etc., 
names  which  indicate  that  the  bodies  so  defined 
are  five  or  nine  times  the  height  of  a  pica  body. 

Bastard  types  are  those  with  faces  too  large  or 
too  small  for  the  body :  a  minion  face  upon  a  non- 
pareil body,  or  a  brevier  face  upon  a  bour-  Bastard 
geois  body,  is  a  bastard  size.  A  small  face  *ype8 
is  sometimes  cast  on  a  large  body  to  give  the  open 
appearance  of  leaded  type,  and  a  large  face  is  some- 
times cast  on  a  small  body  to  make  the  print  more 
8 


58          Regular  and  Irregular  Bodies 

compact.  The  bastard  types  are  not  highly  es- 
teemed, and  are  now  made  only  to  order.  These 

Nonpareil  on  Agate.          Agate  on  Nonpareil. 

The  types  of  this  paragraph  are  The  types  of  this  paragraph  are  of 

upon  agate  body,  but  the  face  is  a  the  ordinary  agate  size,  but  the  space 

very  large  nonpareil.    The  tails  of  between  the  lines  is  less  than  the 

the  descending  letters,  g  j  p,  q   y,  thickness  of  any  practicable   lead, 

5S^^^%il£.7£^  andshowstbeboJySfnonpareil.  The 

tween  all  the  lines.    This  type  was  obJect  801u?h!  m  putting  aga*e  upon 

made  for  a  directory  with  an  intent  nonpareil  is  to  give  it  the  effect  of 

to  get  the  largest  possible  face  of  leaded  type  without  the  use  of  leads, 

type  within  the  smallest  space.  and  to  make  the  print  more  readable. 

methods  of  putting  a  large  face  on  a  small  body, 
or  a  small  face  on  a  large  body,  make  it  difficult 
even  for  an  expert  to  identify  the  body  of  any 
type  so  treated.  There  is  no  accepted  standard  of 
height  for  the  short  or  round  letters  of  any  face, 
but  it  may  be  assumed,  as  a  general  rule,  that  long 
ascenders  and  descenders  belong  to  a  face  which  is 
small  for  the  body,  and  that  short  ascenders  and 
descenders  belong  to  a  face  which  is  large  for  the 
body. 

A  distinction  is  made  by  type-founders  between 
regular  and  irregular  bodies.  The  regular  bodies 
Regular  and  are  Pearl>  nonpareil,  brevier,  long- 
irreguiarbod-  primer,  pica,  great-primer,  and  all 
iesoftype  muitiples  of  pica.  They  are  called 
regular  because  they  are  the  bodies  that  have  been 
preferred  and  have  been  most  in  use.  The  irregu- 
lar bodies  are  diamond,  agate,  minion,  bourgeois, 
small-pica,  english,  and  all  their  multiples.  They 
are  called  irregular  because  most  of  them  were 
unknown  to  Moxon  and  the  early  English  printers. 


Two-line  Types  and  Double  Types      59 

The  distinction  is  more  fanciful  than  real ;  in  some 
printing  offices  the  irregular  sizes  are  in  greater 
use.  Display  and  ornamental  types  are  usually 
cast  only  on  the  regular  bodies,  and  for  this  rea- 
son it  is  of  advantage  to  give  them  a  preference. 
American  type-founders  give  separate  names  to 
two-line  types  and  double-bodied  types.  A  two- 
line  pica  and  a  double  pica  have  the  r^o^e 
same  body.  The  face  of  the  two-line  types  and 
type  occupies  nearly  the  whole  of  the  doubleta>es 
body  5  the  capital  of  a  double-bodied  type  is  much 
shorter,  and  terminates  on  a  broad  shoulder.  The 


Hardy 


ERE  is  a 
Two-line 


Double  great-primer  Two-line  great-primer  capital 

capital  and  lower-case.        with  two  lines  of  great-primer. 

double-bodied  letter  is  usually  accompanied  with 
lower-case,  for  the  descending  letters  of  which 
this  broad  shoulder  is  provided.  The  two-line 
letter  is  usually  of  capitals  only,  and  is  or  should 
be  so  put  on  its  body  that  as  an  initial  letter  it 
will  line  with  the  second  line  of  the  small  text- 
type  of  which  it  is  the  duplicate.  In  England 
this  distinction  is  not  so  well  observed.  The 
double  pica  of  English  type-founders  appears  to 
be  the  equivalent  of  our  double  small-pica;  and 
what  they  call  two-line  pica  is  our  double  english. 


60  The  Practice  of  Typography. 

Brilliant.  ABCDEPGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ 

Diamond.  ABCDEFGHUKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ 

Pearl.  ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ 

Agate.  ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ 

Nonpareil.  ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ 

Minion.  ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ 

Brevier.  ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ 

Bourgeois.  ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ 

Long-primer.  ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVW  | 

smaii-pica.  ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTIA  | 

p^.  ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSJ 

English.  ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPI 


Great-primer. 

Double 
small-pica. 

Double 
pica. 


Double 
english. 


Double  . 
great-primer. 


Double 
paragon. 


ABCDEFGHIJKLMNC 

ABCDEFGHIJKL 
ABCDEFGHIJf 

ABCDEFGH 

ABCDEFC 

ABODE 
ABCE 


Canon. 

The  black  squares  show  the  em,  or  square  of  the  body. 


The  Practice  of  Typography.  61 

Brilliant.                 abcdefghijklmnopqntuTwxyi  • 

Diamond.           abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz  m 

Pearl.                  abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz  g 

Agate.               abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz  H 

Nonpareil.       abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz  | 

Minion.           abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz  |j 

Brevier.          abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz  | 

Bourgeois,     abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz  | 

Long-primer,  abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz  | 

Small-pica,    abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz  ^ 

pica.          abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz  • 

English,      abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwx  ^ 

r.  abcdefghij  kimnopqrstuv  • 


Double 
small-pica. 

Double 
pica. 


Double 
english. 


Double 

great-prim^ 


Double 
paragon. 


abcdefghijklmnopqr 
abcdefghijklmnop 

abcdefghijklm 

.abcdefghij 

abcdefg 
abcdefi 


Canon. 

The  black  squares  show  the  em,  or  square  of  the  body. 


62  Canon  to  Double  Pica 

The  alphabets  on  pages  60  and  61  show  the  sizes 
of  standard  types  and  their  relative  proportions. 

Canon,  or  48-point,  is  four  times  the  height  and 

sixteen  times  the  area  of  the  standard  size  of  pica. 

It  was  so  called  from  its  early  employment 

in  the  leading  lines  or  paragraphs  of  the 

printed  canons  of  the  Church,  as  is  also  indicated 

by  its  German  name  of  missal.     The  canon  of  the 

English  type-founders  is  usually  a  face  of  about 

three  lines  of  pica  cast  on  a  four-line  pica  body. 

The  face  of  full  height  on  four-line  pica  body  is 

called  four-line. 

Meridian  (four  heights  of  small-pica),  or  44-point, 
is  a  body  rarely  selected  for  letters,  and  has  but  a 
limited  use  for  combination  borders. 

Double  paragon  (four  heights  of  long-primer),  or 
40-point,  was  a  favorite  for  ecclesiastical  printing. 
The  larger  types  of  the  famous  "  Psalter  of  1457" 
are  on  this  body. 

Double  great-primer  (four  heights  of  bourgeois), 
or  36-point,  is  a  body  largely  used  for  ornamental 
types. 

Four-line  brevier,  or  32-point,  is  never  used  for 
text-types ;  only  for  borders  or  ornamental  faces. 

Double  english,  or  28-point,  is  a  body,  seldom 
selected  for  text-types,  but  largely  used  for  script 
and  ornamental  letters. 

Double  pica,  or  24-point,  is  a  favored  body  for 
all  faces.  English  type-founders  describe  it  as 
two-line  pica. 


Double  Small-pica  to  Great-primer      63 

Double  small-pica,  or  22-point,  is  a  body  in  fre- 
quent request,  but  most  preferred  for  ornamental 
faces.  It  is  known  in  England  as  double  pica. 

Paragon  (double  long-primer),  or  20-point,  is  a 
body  seldom  selected  by  any  American  or  English 
founder,  yet  it  has  distinction  as  a  size 
favored  by  William  Caxton  as  well  as  by 
the  printer  of  the  "  Bible  of  42  lines."    The  name 
of  paragon  is  now  out  of  use  in  Germany,  but  20- 
point  type  is  there  known  and  much  used  under 
the  name  of  text. 

Great-primer  (double  bourgeois),  or  18-point,  is 
a  favorite  body  for  the  text-types  of  large  quartos 
and  folios,  as  well  as  for  ornamental  faces.  Great- 
Its  size,  one-half  more  than  that  of  pica,  Primer 
or  12-point,  permits  it  to  be  freely  used  with  pica 
and  nonpareil  in  combination  borders.  The  name 
is  of  doubtful  origin,  but  it  is  probably  derived 
from  use  of  the  type  on  a  large  leaf.  Rowe  Mores 
says  that  great-primer  was  a  favorite  size  with 
early  English  printers,  and  the  size  preferred  for 
some  large  primer  of  the  English  Church.1 

l  It  was  also  known  as  Bible-  mation  were  printed  at  Paris 

text  from  its  frequent  use  in  as  early  as  1490,  and  in  Eng- 

Bibles.     Henry  vin  allowed  his  land  in  1537.     (Reed,  "  English 

subjects  to  use  an  English  Form  Founders,"  p.  37,  note.)     Reed 

of  Public  Prayer,  and  ordered  suggests   that  Primer  may  be 

one  to  be  printed  for  their  use,  from  the  "L&tinpremere,  to  print, 

entitled  the   "Primer,"  which  and  naturalized  in  England  un- 

contained,  besides  the  prayers,  der  the  name  of  "imprimery." 

several  psalms,  lessons,  and  an-  Great-primer  may  be  the  great 

thems.    "Primers"  of  the  Eng-  print  letter.     In  Holland,  Italy, 

lish  Church  before  the  Ref or-  and  Spain  it  was  called  text. 


64  Columbian  to  Pica 

Columbian  (double  brevier),  or  16 -point,  is  a 
neglected  body,  first  made  in  text-type  by  George 
Bruce  of  New  York  to  supply  a  size  that  seemed 
to  be  needed  between  english  and  great-primer. 
It  is  not  a  regular  body  for  book-type. 

English  (double  minion),  or  14-point,  is  one  of 
the  oldest  of  bodies,  the  one  selected  for  the  "  Let- 
ters of  Indulgence  of  1453,"  by  some  un- 
known printer  at  Mentz,  and  also  by  an 
early  printer  in  the  Netherlands.  It  has  the  name 
english  because  it  was  so  extensively  used  by  early 
English  printers  for  their  law  books,  acts  of  Par- 
liament, and  exclusively  English  work.  Germans 
call  it  mittel  because  it  is  the  middle  or  inter- 
mediate of  the  seven  sizes  of  type  in  greatest  use. 
It  has  been  a  body  of  marked  irregularity;  before 
the  adoption  of  the  system  of  points  in  France 
and  Germany  it  varied  from  15  to  13  points. 

Pica  (double  nonpareil),  or  12-point,  is  a  favorite 
body  for  important  works  in  octavo.  The  pica 
body  has  been,  and  still  is,  the  standard  unit 
for  determining  sizes.  All  the  larger  sizes 
of  type  above  four-line,  and  all  the  more  impor- 
tant widths  of  furniture,  are  made  to  bodies  that 
are  regular  multiples  of  pica;  all  thicknesses  of 
leads,  and  sometimes  of  brass  rules,  are  graduated 
to  divisions  of  pica,  and  are  called  by  the  divi- 
sors, as  four,  six,  eight,  or  ten  to  pica.  Like  great- 
primer,  it  takes  its  name  from  its  early  use  as  a 
text-letter.  "  The  Pie "  (of  which  the  word  Pica 


Small-pica  and  Long-primer  65 

is  the  Latin  name 1 ),  writes  Mores,  "  was  a  table 
showing  the  course  of  the  services  of  the  Church 
in  the  times  of  darkness.  It  was  called  the  Pie 
because  it  was  written  in  letters  of  black  and  red, 
as  the  Friars  de  Pica  were  so  named  from  their 
parti-coloured  raiment  black  and  white,  the  plu- 
mage of  a  magpie." 

Small -pica  (double  agate),  or  11 -point,  is  one 
of  the  so-called  irregular  bodies  which  an  early 
writer  on  printing  thought  unworthy  of 

5  8_  J  Small-pica 

a  place  in  any  printing  office ;  but  type- 
founders now  find  that  it  is  in  greater  request  in 
book-printing  offices  than  the  regular  body  of  pica. 
Long-primer  (double  pearl),  or  10-point,  is  an- 
other body  which  takes  its  name  from  its  early 
use  in  ecclesiastical  books.2  The  name  was  prob- 
ably gjven  first  to  the  size  of  the  leaf,  the  long 
duodecimo,  on  which  the  services  of  the  Church 
were  printed  without  abbreviation,  and  secondly, 

l  Mores  gives  this  quotation  clerus,  as  a  book  frequently  re- 

from  a  Breviary  of  Sarum,   as  printed  by  the  English  printers, 

printed  in  1555 :  Caxton  advertised  the  "  Pyes  of 

([  Incipit  ordo  breviarij  feu  Salisbury  use."    Eeed  suggests 

portiforij  fecundum  morem  &  that  Pica  may  refer  to  the  black- 

confuetudinem  ecclefie    Sarum  and- white  appearance  of  a  print- 

Anglicane :  vna  cum  ordinalifuo  ed  page. 

quod  vifltato   vocabolo    dicitur  2  Rowe  Mores  quotes  the  title 

Pica  five  directoriurn  facerdo-  "  A  Prymer  of  Salisbury  use  set 

turn  in  tempore  pafchali. —  Pars  out  a  long  by  Robert  Valentine 

Hyemalis.  (Rowe  Mores,  "Eng-  at  Rouen,  in  the  year  1555,"  as 

lish  Founders,"  p.  23.)    He  also  explaining  its  origin.    But  the 

gives  on  p.  24  the  title  of  the  type  of  this  book  is  pica,  and  not 

Directorium     sacerdotum    quern  long-primer.    ("  English  Foun- 

[librum]  Pica  Sarum  vulgo  votitat  ders  and  Founderies,"  p.  26.) 
9 


66  Bourgeois  to  Minionette 

to  the  smaller  type,  which  was  more  serviceable 
for  a  leaf  of  this  shape.  It  continues  to  be  the 
body  preferred  for  duodecimos. 

Bourgeois  (double  diamond),  or  9-point,  possibly 
gets  its  name,  as  Reed  suggests,  from  the  French 
city  of  Bourges.  Bourgeois  was  not  first 
made  there,  for  it  is  the  body  of  the  text- 
letter  of  the  "  Compilatio  Decretalium "  of  Pope 
Gregory  ix,  printed  by  Torresani,  at  Venice,  in  the 
year  1498.  The  name  may  be  derived  from  the 
frequent  selection  of  this  body  for  the  small  and 
cheap  books  made  for  the  bourgeoisie. 

Brevier  (double  brilliant),  or  8-point,  carries  a 
name  that  suggests  its  early  employment  in  the 
printing  of  breviaries.1  The  notes  of  the 
Decretals  referred  to  in  the  previous  para- 
graph are  in  types  of  brevier  body. 

Minion,  or  7-point,  is  one  of  the  irregular  sizes, 
and  is  now  in  small  request,  except  for  newspaper 
work.  Its  name  indicates  the  esteem  in  which 
it  was  once  held,  not  only  by  English,  but  by 
French  and  Italian  typographers,  as  a  small  and 
valued  darling  of  a  type. 

Minionette,  or  6J  point,  is  a  body  largely  used 
in  France  for  combination  borders.  The  adoption 
of  the  borders  in  the  United  States  compelled  the 

l  Reed  says  that  most  of  the  Many  of  the  cheap  and  more 

breviaries  are  in  types  of  larger  popular  editions  must  have  been 

size,  but  this  remark  can  apply  worn  out  by  long  usage ;  some 

only  to  the  finely  printed  ones  of  these  editions  must  be  un- 

which    have    been    preserved,  known  to  bibliographers. 


Nonpareil  to  Diamond  67 

adoption  of  the  same  body,  but  it  is  now  passing 
out  of  use.  It  seems  to  be  the  equivalent  of  the 
English  emerald,  which  is  used  as  a  text-type. 

Nonpareil,  or  6-point  (the  half  of  pica),  is  the 
most  used  of  the  small  bodies.  It  seems  to  have 
been  made  for  the  first  time  in  1490  by 

,»-r-vi       «  11      ••-•,  Nonpareil 

John  Froben  of  Basle,  for  a  black-letter 
octavo  edition  of  the  Bible.  It  first  appeared 
with  a  fine  roman  face  in  a  beautiful  manual  of 
services  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  printed  at 
Venice  in  1501.  It  was  probably  adjudged  a  mar- 
vel of  skill  in  letter-cutting,  for  it  has  preserved 
its  name  in  all  countries. 

Agate,  or  5J-point  (the  half  of  small-pica),  is  a 
favorite  size  for  newspaper  advertisements,  and 
for  all  kinds  of  printing  in  which  great  compact- 
ness is  desired.  It  is  known  in  England  as  ruby. 

Pearl,  or  5-point  (the  half  of  long-primer),  finds 
employment  in  pocket  editions  of  the  Bible,  prayer- 
books,  and  small  manuals,  as  well  as  for  side  and 
cut-in  notes  and  references.  The  celebrated  printer 
Jannon  made  it  famous  by  selecting  it  in  1627  as 
the  text-type  of  his  so-called  "  Diamond  "  editions, 
printed  by  him  at  Sedan. 

Diamond,  or  4J  point  (the  half  of  bourgeois), 
seems  to  have  been  made  for  the  first  time  by  Vos- 
kens  of  Amsterdam,  who  cut  a  full  font  of 

Diamond 

it  about  the  year  1700.  Van  Dijk,  the  type- 
founder for  Daniel  Elzevir,  had  shown  in  1681  a 
size  smaller  than  pearl,  but  it  was  not  so  small  as 


68  Brilliant  to  Non-plus-ultra 

Voskens's  diamond.  Pickering  of  London  selected 
this  body  for  his  miniature  editions  of  the  classics. 

Brilliant,  or  4-point  (the  half  of  brevier),  is  a 
size  of  this  century.  One  square  inch  of  ordinary 
composition  in  brilliant  contains  about  1200  pieces 
of  metal:  of  the  lower-case  i,  3456  are  needed  to 
make  one  pound  in  weight ;  of  the  thinnest  space, 
nearly  twice  as  many. 

Excelsior,  or  3-point  (the  half  of  nonpareil),  is  a 
body  used  in  America  for  music,  piece-fractions, 
and  borders  only.  It  seems  to  be  the  same  body 
as  the  English  "  minikin/' 

Yet  there  is  a  text-type  still  smaller.  In  1827 
Henri  Didot  of  Paris,  then  sixty-six  years  old,  cut 
with  his  own  hands  a  font  of  type  on  the  body 
of  2£  points  by  the  Didot  system,  which  he  called 
"  microscopique."  Twenty-five  lines  of  this  type 
apparently  fill  the  space  of  one  American  inch. 

The  founder  Gronau  of  Berlin  shows  three  text- 
types  (roman,  italic,  fractur)  cut  for  a  3-point  body 
but  cast  for  convenience  on  that  of  a  4-point. 

The  Enschede  Foundry  of  Haarlem  has  cut  a 
still  smaller  face,  a  "  non-plus-ultra,"  on  a  2-point 
body,  but  it  is  cast  on  a  4-point  body. 

These  types  are  wonderful  as  evidences  of  skill ; 
but  they  are  of  slight  value  in  the  practice  of 
printing. 

The  general  effect  of  the  sizes  most  used  in  ordi- 
nary composition  is  shown  in  the  following  illus- 
trations. 


Six-line  pica,  or  72-point  69 

Oldest 

verified 
print  is 

(The  woodcut  of  St.  Christopher) 

of  date 
1423 


70  Five-line  pica,  or  60-point 

The  old- 
est type 
Printing 


( Letters  of  Indulgence ) 


^^  \  ueti/ors  uj.  j.uu.tu.gt;uu«  j  ^ 

has  writ- 
ten date 
of  14541 


Four-line  pica,  or  4:8-point  71 

The  earliest 
types  are  of 
English  and 
Double  pica 
bodies:  they 
were  found- 
ed in  moulds 


72  Double  paragon,  or  £Q-point 

^The  earliest 
book  bearing 
a  printed  date 
is  the  famous 
Psalter  (1457) 
published  by 
John  Fust  and 
his  son-in-law 
P.  Schoeffer 


Double  great-primer,  or  36-point         73 

The  types  of  the 
PSALTER  made 
in  1457  were  cast 
on  the  bodies  of 
double  paragon 
and  double  great 
primer,  and  the 
book  was  decor- 
ated with  red  ink 
and  large  initials. 


10 


74  Double  english,  or  28-point 

%  A  Bible  in  types 
of  paragon  body,  42 
lines  to  a  page,  has  a 
certificate  that  its  il- 
lumination was  done 
at  Mentz,  A.  0.1456. 
Another  Bible,  of  36 
lines,  from  types  of 
double  pica  body,  is 
believed  to  have  been 
printed  between  the 
years  1450  and  1459, 
at  the  same  old  city. 


Double  pica,  or  24^-point  75 

Certain  books  known 
to  have  been  printed  at  or 
near  Mentz  and  before  the 
year  1460,  and  in  different 
sizes  of  type  from  double 
paragon  down  to  english, 
show  that  the  methods  of 
type-making  and  printing 
were  in  regular  use.  The 
imprint  of  the  Psalter  of 
1457  says  that  book  was 
made  by  the  "masterly 
invention  of  printing  and 
also  of  type-making." 


76     Double  small-pica,  or  22-point,  solid 

What  was  this  invention  of 
type-making  ?  Ulric  Zell, 
writing  in  1499,  says  that 
this  masterly  and  subtile  in- 
vention was  "the  art  as  it 
is  now  used."  Trithemius, 
in  1514,  declared  that  this 
invention  was  "the  method 
of  founding  the  forms  of  all 
the  letters  which  they  called 
matrices,  from  which  they 
cast  the  metal  types."  Peter 
Schoeffer,  in  the  "Gram- 
matica'  printed  by  him  at 
Mentz,  says  metaphorically 
of  the  book,  "I  [this  book] 
am  cast  at 


Double  small-pica,  or  22-point,  leaded    77 

Bernard  Cennini  of  Florence, 
writing  in  1 47 1 ,  declares  that 
the  characters  of  his  books 
were  first  cut  and  then  cast. 
Nicholas  Jenson  of  Venice, 
in  a  book  dated  1485,  says 
that  the  types  of  his  book 
were  cut  and  cast  by  a  di- 
vine art.  An  account  book 
of  the  Ripoli  Press  at  Flor- 
ence, 1474—1483,  specifies 
the  metals  and  the  materials 
now  used  in  type-foundries. 
The  art  then  practised  was 
"the  art  as  it  is  now  used." 


78          Great-primer,  or  \&-point,  solid 

Ulric  Zell  says  that  John  Guten- 
berg, a  citizen  of  Mentz,  was  the 
inventor  of  printing.  Trithemi- 
us  says  "the  admirable  and  till 
then  unheard-of  art  of  printing 
books  by  types  was  planned 
and  invented  by  John  Guten- 
berg." John  Schoeffer,  the  son 
of  Peter,  in  i  505  declared  that 
the  admirable  art  of  typography 
was  invented  in  the  year  1450 
by  the  ingenious  John  Guten- 
berg. A  tablet  near  his  tomb, 
put  up  soon  after  his  death,  is 
inscribed  to  John  Genszfleisch 
[Gutenberg],  inventor  of  the  art 
of  printing.  A  second  tablet, 
1508,  is  to  John  Gutenberg  of 
Mentz,  who,  first  of  all,  invent- 
ed printing  letters  in  metal. 


Great-primer,  or  18-point,  leaded        79 

Many  writings  of  the  fifteenth 
century  testify  that  John  Guten- 
berg was  then  regarded  as  the 
inventor  of  typography.  In  the 
Catholicon  of  1460,  a  book  at- 
tributed to  Gutenberg,  is  the 
statement  that  the  merit  of  the 
new  art  is  shown  in  the  "  admi- 
rable proportion,  harmony  and 
connection  of  the  punches  and 
matrices."  The  key  to  the  in- 
vention of  typography  was  the 
discovery  of  the  only  proper  art 
of  making  the  types,  "the  art  as 
it  is  now  used,"  for  there  is  no 
other.  The  legends  of  a  Dutch 
invention  by  Koster  in  1440  did 
not  appear  in  print  before  1546. 


80  Columbian,  or  I6-point,  solid 

Punches  and  matrices  were  fre- 
quently sold  at  the  close  of  the 
fifteenth  century.  In  the  year 
1476  John  Peter  from  Mentz  was 
selling  matrices  to  some  print- 
ers of  Florence.  The  goldsmiths 
of  Florence  and  Venice  were  cut- 
ting punches  for  printers.  Aldus 
Manutius  of  Venice  complained 
that  Francis  of  Bologna,  who  cut 
the  punches  for  his  new  italic, 
had  also  cut  duplicates  for  the 
Giunta.  When  he  began  to  print 
at  Alost  in  1474  John  of  West- 
phalia announced  that  he  had 
the  genuine  Venetian  characters. 
The  types  of  Jenson  of  Venice 
were  copied  in  books  printed  in 
France.  Caxton  of  London  and 
Mansion  of  Bruges  used  a  similar 
face  of  type.  So  did  Leeu  and 
Bellaert,  and  Machlinia  and  Vel- 
dener,  of  the  Netherlands. 


Columbian,  or  16-point,  leaded          81 

C  All  early  type-founding  was 
without  system.  The  printer  who 
directed  his  punch-cutter  to  copy 
the  letters  in  a  manuscript  had 
no  perception  of  the  beauty  of  a 
series  of  uniform  faces  and  grad- 
uated bodies.  Gutenberg  used 
pointed  gothic  and  round  gothic 
faces.  Jenson  made  roman  and 
round  gothic.  Other  printers  had 
cut  for  them  mongrel  faces  which 
are  now  entirely  disused.  Type- 
casting was  always  done  by  the 
printers,  who  had  a  simple  form 
of  mould  in  which  they  cast  sev- 
eral bodies  of  types,  as  is  shown 
in  the  two  bodies  of  english  made 
by  Gutenberg  and  the  four  bodies 
of  english  made  by  the  unknown 
printer  of  the  Netherlands. 
11 


82  English,  or  l4:-point,  solid 

All  the  early  printed  books  were  cop- 
ies, more  or  less  faithful,  of  the  manu- 
script model.  They  were  fair  copies 
of  its  form  of  letter,  of  its  size  of  page 
and  width  of  margin,  and  its  arrange- 
ment of  text  and  notes.  Large  blanks 
were  left  for  initial  letters  that  should 
grace  the  beginning  of  every  chap- 
ter or  other  important  division,  and 
for  the  decorative  border  that  should 
enclose  the  text.  After  the  printing 
of  the  text- type  had  been  entirely  done, 
the  initials  and  borders  were  added  by 
a  professional  illuminator  who  some- 
times closed  the  work  of  which  he 
was  justly  proud  with  a  written  state- 
ment to  which  he  added  his  name  as 
the  decorator.  The  most  direct  proof 
that  the  Bible  of  42  lines  was  printed 
before  1456  is  the  certificate,  in  one 
copy,  of  Albech,  the  illuminator.  The 
Psalter  0/1457  contains  great  initials 
which  had  been  engraved  on  nested 
blocks  for  printing  in  two  colors.  The 
blocks  were  separated,  inked,  and  then 
joined  and  printed  by  one  impression. 


English,  or  \<±-point,  leaded  83 

Other  printers  of  that  age  found  it  less 
troublesome  to  leave  these  spaces  for 
borders  and  initials  blank,  to  be  filled 
in  by  the  buyer  of  the  book.  But  few 
of  these  book-buyers  had  the  time  or 
the  ability  to  do  this  work.  Only  the 
wealthy  could  pay  the  prices  asked 
by  illuminators.  Consequently  not  one 
book  in  a  hundred  had  its  unsightly 
blanks  filled  with  the  decorations  in- 
tended. Then  book-buyers  began  to 
question  the  utility  of  the  white  gaps 
and  the  broad  margins;  they  began  to 
ask  for  more  print  and  less  paper,  for 
books  that  were  perfect  when  sold  by 
the  printers.  To  meet  this  demand, 
the  printers  of  Augsburg  at  an  early 
date  undertook  to  furnish  small  orna- 
mental initials,  but  Ratdolt  of  Venice 
seems  to  have  been  the  first,  in  1477, 
to  make  the  true  decorative  initials,  or 
the  literceflorentes,  as  he  called  them. 


84  Pica,  or  12-point,  solid 

Ratdolt's  initials  were  probably  cut  in  high 
relief  on  metal,  for  it  was  not  then  econom- 
ical, perhaps  not  even  practicable,  to  found 
large  ornamental  letters  in  a  mould.  Much 
of  the  so-called  engraving  on  wood  of  this 
period,  especially  of  engravings  noticeable 
for  their  fine  or  delicate  lines,  was  really 
engraving  on  brass,  copper,  or  type-metal. 
Jean  Dupre  of  Paris  says,  in  a  devotional 
book  (entirely  typographic)  printed  by  him 
in  1488,  that  his  engravings  of  Bible  stories 
and  pictures  were  "printed  upon  copper." 
The  largest  text-types,  on  a  body  of  about 
4>^  picas,  were  founded  for  John  Sensen- 
schmidt,  and  printed  by  him  in  the  Bam- 
berg  Missal  of  1481.  Stock  of  Nuremberg, 
and  some  unknown  printer  in  Spain,  made 
types  nearly  as  large,  but  most  buyers  of 
books  preferred  smaller  types  and  volumes. 
The  printers  tried  to  adapt  the  old  fashions 
of  decorating  the  books  to  the  new  art  by 
engraving  full-page  borders,  and  initials  de- 
signed to  show  white  letters  upon  a  gray 
groundwork.  It  was  then  expected  that  the 
book-buyer  would  illuminate  the  page  by 
painting  red  the  letters  in  white.  This 
fashion  of  making  white  letters  has  been 
continued  to  this  time,  although  the  sup- 
posed necessity  for  them  does  not  now  exist. 


Pica,  or  12-point,  leaded  85 

Typography  received  its  most  valuable 
improvements  from  the  printers  of  Italy,  in 
which  country  the  three  text-letters  of  great- 
est usefulness  were  first  made  :  (i)  Roman, 
first  founded  by  Sweinheym  and  Pannartz 
in  1465,  and  afterward  perfected  by  Jenson 
at  Venice  in  1471  ;  (2)  Italic  and  (3)  Small 
Capitals,  introduced  together  by  Aldus  Ma- 
nutius  at  Venice  in  1501.  The  first  volume 
entirely  in  Greek  was  printed  at  Milan  in 
1476 ;  the  first  book  entirely  in  Hebrew,  at 
Soncino  in  1488.  The  forms  then  adopted 
have  not  been  seriously  changed;  modern 
taste  is  now  drifting  back  to  a  closer  adher- 
ence to  the  models  first  made  by  the  more 
skilful  of  the  early  Italian  founders.  Title- 
pages,  copperplate  maps  and  illustrations, 
engraved  initials  and  borders,  smoother  and 
thinner  papers,  smaller  types  and  simpler  ar- 
rangements of  types  on  the  page,  narrower 
margins,  handiersizes  of  books,  and  inexpen- 
sive forms  of  binding — all  these,  and  most 
of  the  minor  improvements  which  make 
books  more  attractive,  were  first  introduced 
or  were  most  skilfully  executed  in  Italy. 


86  Small-pica,  or  ll-point,  solid 

In  the  art  of  making  books  attractive,  France 
soon  became  the  superior  of  Italy.  For  books  of 
devotion  and  for  the  literature  of  romance,  early 
French  printers  preferred  the  black-letter  char- 
acter, which  they  had  cast  for  them  in  many  ad- 
mirable forms.  Not  content  with  beauty  in  types, 
Verard,  Pigouchet,  Kerver,  Vostre,and  other  emi- 
nent publishers  and  printers, secured  the  coopera- 
tion of  many  able  designers,  who  provided  initials 
and  borders  of  marked  merit  which  are  still  re- 
garded as  masterpieces  of  typographical  decora- 
tion. •  Geoffrey  Tory,  one  of  the  ablest  of  early 
French  designers,  in  his  book  of  "  Champfleury  " 
tried  to  bring  into  more  general  use  the  roman 
form  of  letter,  which  was  even  then  preferred 
by  French  scholars,  and  which  ultimately  became 
the  accepted  text-letter  of  the  nation.  Claude 
Garamond,  one  of  his  pupils,  seems  to  have  de- 
voted himself  entirely  to  designing  and  casting 
types  for  the  printing  trade.  He  carried  out  in  a 
practical  manner  many  of  the  reforms  in  typog- 
raphy which  had  been  proposed  by  his  master. 
His  roman  characters,  based  upon  the  models 
of  Jenson,  and  his  italics,  which  he  improved  by 
inclining  the  capital  letters,  were  much  admired 
and  eagerly  bought  by  printers  in  foreign  coun- 
tries. They  earned  for  him  the  distinction  he  has 
had  ever  since  as  the  "  father  of  letter-founders." 
Type-founding  was  made  a  distinct  art  in  France 
before  it  was  in  any  other  country.  At  Paris, 
Lyons,  and  Rouen  were  founders  who  supplied 
printers  of  all  countries  with  punches,  matrices, 


Small-pica,  or  \\-point,  leaded          87 

or  fonts  of  type.  Guillaume  Le  Be  (1525-1598) 
succeeded  Garamond  as  the  leading  type-founder 
at  Paris,  cutting  many  forms  of  orientals  for  the 
Royal  Printing  House,  for  printers  of  Venice,  and 
Christopher  Plantin  of  Antwerp.  During  three 
generations  his  descendants  maintained  the  high 
reputation  of  French  type-founding.  After  the 
death  of  the  last  Le  Be  in  1707,  the  foundry  was 
bought  and  ably  sustained  by  Fournier  the  elder. 
The  house  of  Sanlecque,  almost  as  famous,  was 
founded  by  Jacques  de  Sanlecque,  a  pupil  of  Le 
Be.  He  was  celebrated  for  his  music  types  and 
for  the  oriental  types  he  made  for  Le  Jay's  Poly- 
glot Bible.  Pierre  Moreau,  who  began  his  work 
in  1640,  Jean  Cot,  who  began  in  1670,  and  Pierre 
Esclassant,  who  began  in  1666,  were  other  notable 
founders  of  Paris,  but  they  were  dwarfed  by  the 
reputation  and  fast  growth  of  the  Royal  Printing 
House,  which  was  then  making  fas'hions  for  types. 
In  1704,  M.  Jaugeon  of  the  Royal  Academy  of 
Sciences,  working  under  a  commission  from  the 
king  (Louis  XIV.)  to  make  a  truly  " royal"  type, 
introduced  the  fashion  of  extended  and  almost 
conjoined  hair-line  serifs.  This  feminine  fashion 
added  nothing  to  the  beauty  of  types,  but  it  did 
largely  diminish  their  legibility  and  durability. 
Nine  sizes  of  characters  were  made  in  this  style. 


88          Long-primer,  or  lO-point,  solid 

Louis  Luce,the  punch-cutter  of  the  Royal  Printing  House 
between  the  years  1740  and  1771,  further  disfigured  the 
roman  character  by  putting  flat,  extended  serifs  upon 
the  tops  of  some  lower-case  letters,  and  by  adding  a 
needless  side-spur  to  the  lower-case  d  as  is  here  shown. 
During  all  the  changes  of  government  and  of  name 
(for  it  has  been  called  Royal,  Imperial,  and  National), 
this  printing  house  of  the  French  government  has 
steadily  maintained  a  high  reputation  for  the  wealth 
of  its  material  and  the  general  beauty  of  its  produc- 
tions. It  has  been  made  richer  in  many  ways.  Napo- 
leon, exercising  the  arrogated  right  of  a  conqueror,  in 
1799  robbed  the  printing  office  of  the  Propaganda  at 
Rome,  and  in  1808  that  of  the  Medicis  at  Florence,  of 
their  valuable  collections  of  punches  and  matrices.  In 
1815  the  new  government  of  France  ordered  them  to 
be  restored,  which  was  partially  done.  It  afterward 
enlisted  the  services  of  the  ablest  punch- cutters  of  all 
nations  in  cutting  characters  for  all  languages  that  have 
a  written  literature.  The  official  history  of  this  office, 
published  in  1861,  states  that  it  then  owned  361,000 
punches  and  matrices.  Among  them  are  the  Greek 
characters  of  Garamond  made  under  the  direction  of 
Robert  Stephens,  and  the  romans  modeled  after  the 
designs  of  Jenson.  The  punches  of  Grand]  can,  Alex- 
andre  of  1693,  and  Luce ;  the  borders  of  Fagnon,*the 
ornaments  of  Papillon,  and  some  of  the  work  of  Four- 
nier  the  elder;  the  collection  of  orientals  cut  in  Con- 
stantinople under  the  direction  of  Savary  de  Breves  — 
these  and  others  are  all  to  be  found  in  the  punch 
closets  of  this  National  Printing  House.  Firmin-Didot 
added  new  styles  of  roman  in  1811;  Jacquemin  in 
1818,  and  Marcellin  Legrand  between  1825  and  1847, 
designed  new  and  peculiar  faces.  The  work  of  other 
punch-cutters  of  high  reputation  —  among  them  Leger- 
Didot,  Delafond,  Dresler  and  Rost-Fingerlin  of  Frank- 


Long-primer,  or  10-point,  leaded        89 

fort,  Bodoni  of  Parma,  and  Vibert  and  Bopp  of  Berlin 
—  is  exhibited  at  length  in  the  large  specimen  book  of 
1 86 1.  In  1848  it  had  distinct  characters  for  fifty-two 
different  languages,  many  of  them  on  different  bodies. 
Although  the  National  Printing  House  at  Paris  has  a 
deservedly  high  reputation,  many  important  improve- 
ments in  French  types  and  typography  were  made  by 
founders  and  printers  who  were  never  in  its  service. 
At  Lyons  the  type-foundry  of  Lacolonge,  which  passed 
from  father  to  son  for  many  generations,  had  an  envi- 
able reputation  for  three  hundred  years.  Its  earliest 
and  ablest  punch-cutter,  Robert  Granjon,  showed  more 
boldness  and  originality  than  any  other  designer  of  his 
time.  Some  connoisseurs  in  typography  hold  that  an 
early  form  of  light-faced  roman  capitals,  first  shown 
at  Lyons  in  the  xvith  century,  presumably  by  Granjon, 
is  really  superior  in  design  to  the  roman  of  Jenson,  or  of 
Garamond,  or  any  of  their  successors.  The  type-foun- 
dry of  Pierre  Simon  Fournier  (or,  as  he  is  better  known, 
Fournier  the  younger)  began  its  work  at  Paris  in  1736. 
In  his  "  Manuel  Typographique  "  he  shows  one  hun- 
dred alphabets,  ancient  and  modern,  of  great  merit,  a 
large  part  of  which  was  made  by  his  own  hands.  His 
greatest  service  to  typography  was  his  invention  of  the 
point  system  of  type-bodies,  which  is  more  fully  de- 
scribed in  another  chapter.  Jacques  Charles  Derriey 
(1808-1877),  whose  specimen  album  of  1868  is  one  of 
the  masterpieces  of  typography,  is  deservedly  honored 
as  one  of  the  most  skilful  of  modern  type-founders. 
He  gave  his  best  attention  to  borders  and  ornaments. 
12 


90  Bourgeois,  or  9-point,  solid 

Italian  typography  began  to  show  signs  of  its  decadence 
early  in  the  XVIth  century.  After  the  death  of  the  earlier 
printers  and  designers  the  types  of  Venice  did  not  sustain 
their  reputation.  But  one  Venetian  type-foundry  of  the 
xvilth  century,  that  of  the  Deucheni,  had  any  celebrity 
for  its  productions.  The  most  notable  Italian  foundry  was 
the  one  established  in  1578  by  the  order  of  Pope  Gregory 
xili.,  which,  with  its  printing  house,  has  been  called  the 
"Apostolic  Printing  Establishment,"  the  "  Printing  House 
of  the  Vatican,"  and  the  "Press  of  the  Propaganda  de 
Fide."  Its  first  punch-cutter  was  the  Frenchman  Robert 
Granjon,  invited  there  from  Lyons,  who  began  the  series 
of  orientals  which,  continued  by  other  hands,  has  made 
the  house  famous.  Its  specimen  book  of  1628  showed  the 
largest  collection  of  foreign  characters.  The  press  of  the 
Propaganda  still  does  a  limited  quantity  of  valuable  work, 
but  it  is  much  surpassed  by  the  national  printing  houses 
at  Paris  and  Vienna.  Type-foundries  did  not  flourish  in 
Italy;  in  1742  there  was  but  one  in  Turin,  under  the  man- 
agement of  the  Royal  Printing  House,  and  but  one  in 
1719  at  Milan,  under  the  direction  of  the  printer  Bella- 
gata.  All  the  large  Italian  cities  now  have  type-foundries, 
yet  they  have  done  but  little  for  the  improvement  of  the 
national  printing.  Giambattista  Bodoni  (1740-1813)  is  the 
only  Italian  founder  and  printer  of  modern  times  who  has 
fairly  earned  the  highest  honors.  As  the  superintendent  of 
the  Press  of  the  Propaganda  he  showed  the  ability  which 
caused  him  to  be  invited  to  reconstruct  and  manage  the 
Ducal  Printing  House  at  Parma.  Assuming  this  position 
in  1766  he  soon  made  the  Ducal  Printing  House  the  first 
in  Europe.  His  "  Manuale  Tipografico,"  in  two  quarto 
volumes,  begun  by  him  but  completed  by  his  widow  in 
1818,  contains  279  pages  of  specimens  which  are  good 
evidences  of  his  skill  and  industry.  These  specimens  in- 
clude the  alphabets  of  about  thirty  foreign  languages, 
some  of  them  in  two  or  more  sizes.  He  is  most  celebrated 
for  his  peculiar  styles  of  roman  and  italic,  which  were  cut 
on  a  new  system  and  with  great  clearness  and  delicacy. 
His  styles  are  now  out  of  fashion,  but  the  stimulus  he 
gave  to  the  founders  of  all  other  countries  still  endures. 


Bourgeois,  or  9-point,  leaded  91 

Type-founding  did  not  improve  in  Germany  as  it  did 
in  France  and  in  the  Netherlands.  The  able  printers  of 
classic  texts  at  Strasburg,  and  in  other  cities,  supported 
as  they  were  by  the  authority  of  Albert  Diirer,  could  not 
induce  German  readers  to  accept  the  roman  character. 
They  preferred  pointed  letters,  but  were  not  agreed,  even 
at  the  beginning  of  the  xvith  century,  as  to  the  superior 
merit  of  any  one  of  the  many  styles  made  by  the  type- 
founders. The  bible-text  of  Gutenberg,  which  is  the  basis 
of  modern  black-letter;  the  profusely  ornamented  and 
flourished  letters  of  the  "  Theuerdanck,"  which  is  the 
model  of  modern  "  german-text " ;  the  round-gothic,  or 
the  semi-gothic,  of  Schceffer,  a  hybrid  of  roman  and  black- 
letter;  the  schwabacher  and  the  fractur — all  these  had 
admirers.  The  fractur  was  at  last  accepted  as  the  stand- 
ard form  of  text-type,  but  it  has  never  found  favor  with 
the  Latin  races  or  with  English-speaking  peoples.  This 
adherence  of  Germans  to  pointed  letters  has  prevented 
interchanges  of  matrices,  which  has  damaged  German 
type-founding  by  limiting  the  sale  of  its  types  and  books. 
Before  1700  little  was  known  abroad  of  German  type- 
foundries,  though  they  were  more  numerous  than  those  of 
an  y  other  part  of  Europe.  That  of  John  G  ottlob  Immanuel 
Breitkopf  of  Leipsic,  which  was  established  in  1719,  and 
celebrated  its  I5oth  anniversary  in  1869,  was  the  first  to 
obtain  a  wide  reputation.  The  brothers  Walbaum  of 
Weimar  demand  notice  as  reformers  of  the  German  char- 
acter. The  Imperial  Printing  House  of  Vienna  is  cele- 
brated for  its  large  collection  of  foreign  types.  Woellmer 
at  Berlin,  Schelten  and  Giesecke  at  Leipsic,  Meyer  and 
Schleicher,  and  Poppelbaum  at  Vienna,  are  eminent  as 
founders.  The  house  of  W.  Drugulin  (Johs.  Baensch)  of 
Leipsic  is  noted  for  its  admirable  printing. 


92  Brevier,  or  8-point,  solid 

Type-founding  in  the  Netherlands  during  the  latter  half  of  the 
xvth  century  exhibits  the  best  and  the  worst  of  workmanship. 
Blades  believes  that  there  were  two  schools  or  two  methods : 
one  casting  its  types  in  moulds  of  sand,  and  the  other  in  moulds  of 
metal ;  one,  the  method  of  an  experimenter,  or  a  badly  taught 
pupil;  the  other,  our  method,  or  the  "art  as  it  is  now  used.'* 
The  type-founding  of  the  alleged  Koster  and  of  his  school  is  bad ; 
that  of  the  printer  of  the  "  Book  of  the  Golden  Thrones  "  (Haar- 
lem, 1484)  is  excellent.  The  types  of  Thierry  Martens  of  Alost, 
and  of  some  of  his  rivals  and  followers,  are  equal  to  any  from 
France  or  Italy.  Some  of  the  punches  and  matrices  must  have 
been  bought  in  France  or  Italy,  but  more  must  have  been  made 
at  home  by  able  engravers  who  are  now  entirely  unknown. 
Christopher  Plantin  of  Antwerp  had  many  of  his  newer  styles 
made  by  Fra^ois  Guyot  and  his  son  (educated  at  Paris,  but 
residents  of  Antwerp).  Laurent  Van  Everbroeck,  Jacques  Sor- 
bon,  Aime  Tavernier,  and  Gerard  d'Embden  were  type-founders 
at  Antwerp  who  worked  for  the  Plantin  establishment.  Plantin 
was  also  supplied  with  punches  and  matrices  by  Le  Be,  Gara- 
mond,  Haultin  of  Paris,  Bomberghe  of  Cologne,  and  Robert  Gran- 
jon  of  Lyons.  Of  all  these  designers  he  seems  to  have  preferred 
Granjon.  Plantin's  Flemish  characters  were  made  by  Henry 
van  den  Keere  of  Gand,  who,  with  his  successor  Thomas  de 
Vechter,  did  much  work  for  his  house  beween  1567  and  1589. 
The  most  notable  of  the  earlier  Dutch  founders  was  Christofifel 
Van  Dijk  of  Amsterdam,  of  whom  little  is  known  except  that 
he  cut  punches  for  the  Elzevirs.  His  types,  of  which  his  succes- 
sor Athias  of  the  "  Jewish  Foundry"  issued  a  specimen  of  about 
twenty  faces  (including  Greek,  Hebrew,  Italic,  Roman,  Black, 
and  Music),  have  been  warmly  praised  by  Moxon  and  Willems. 
Athias  (1683)  was  succeeded  by  Schipper,  Clyberg  (1705),  and 
Roman  (1767).  Dirck.Voskens  of  Amsterdam  was  equally  prom- 
inent in  1677  as  a  type-founder.  He  and  his  descendants 
largely  supplied  English  printers  with  types  that  were  highly 
commended  by  Luckombe  in  his  book  on  printing.  In  1780 
the  name  of  the  house  was  Voskens  &  Clerk,  afterward  A. 
G.  Mappa  of  Rotterdam.  The  Wetsteins  (R.  &  H.  F.)  were 
German  founders  who  began  in  Amsterdam  before  1740,  and 
who  for  many  years  maintained  a  good  reputation  for  their  small 
types.  The  firm  of  Enschede,  formed  by  Isaac  Enschede  in 
1703,  bought  out  the  Wetsteins  and  made  the  beginning  of  the 
celebrated  Haarlem  type-foundry,  which  from  time  to  time  ab- 
sorbed the  foundries  of  Dirck  Voskens,  J.  Blaew,  Hendrick  de 
Bruyn,  Van  den  Putte,  Van  der  Velde,  and  Ploos  von  Amstel. 
It  is  still  the  largest  type-foundry  in  Holland,  and  is  celebrated 
for  the  merit  of  its  oriental  characters. 


Brevier,  or  8-point,  leaded  93 

Caxton,  the  first  English  printer,  began  his  work  with  types 
that  show  Flemish  mannerisms.  They  were  probably  made  at 
Bruges,  for  they  closely  resemble  the  curious  characters  of  Colard 
Mansion  and  those  of  John  Brito  of  that  city.  Garrulous  enough 
in  other  matters,  Caxton  is  very  reticent  concerning  the  opera- 
tions of  typography.  In  none  of  his  many  books  does  he  say 
anything  about  the  origin  of  the  eight  different  fonts  he  used. 
It  is  probable  that  he,  like  the  other  printers  of  his  time,  bought 
the  punches  and  matrices  where  he  could,  and  cast  the  types  in 
his  own  printing  office.  The  lower-case  letters  of  one  of  his  later 
types  are  exact  copies  of  those  made  by  Fust  and  Schoeffer,  and 
are  equally  well  executed ;  but  the  capitals  for  this  lower-case 
retain  the  peculiarities  of  the  Flemish  grosse  bdtarde,  or  secretary. 
Wynkyn  de  Worde,  pupil  and  successor  of  Caxton,  used  many 
of  his  master's  types,  but  the  styles  he  adopted  later,  and 
those  of  his  fellow-pupil  and  business  rival,  Richard  Pynson, 
were  cut  by  French  artists  who  modified  or  suppressed  all  of 
the  Flemish  mannerisms.  The  form  of  black-letter  preferred  by 
these  early  English  printers  is  still  accepted  as  the  best.  It  has 
suffered  no  transforming  change  which  conceals  its  derivation. 
The  old  english  black-letter  of  our  day  adheres  more  closely 
to  the  models  of  the  first  printers  than  does  the  Flemish  black 
or  the  German  fractur.  The  introduction  of  the  Roman  form  of 
letter  by  Richard  Pynson  in  1518  did  not  suppress  the  black- 
letter,  which  remained  the  favorite  letter  of  the  people  for 
more  than  a  century  afterward.  Reed  says  :  "  The  Black  being 
employed  in  England  to  a  late  date,  not  only  for  Bibles,  but  for 
law  books,  and  royal  proclamations,  and  acts  of  parliament,  has 
never  wholly  fallen  in  disuse  among  us.  The  most  beautiful 
typography  of  which  we  as  a  nation  can  boast  during  the  six- 
teenth and  seventeenth  centuries,  is  to  be  found  in  the  black- 
letter  impressions  of  our  printers."  For  many  years  after  the 
introduction  of  printing  England  seems  to  have  been  dependent 
on  France.  Caxton  and  his  successors  had  books  printed  at 
Paris  and  Rouen.  De  Worde,  Pynson,  Faques,  Berthelet,  and 
Copeland  got  many  of  their  punches  and  types  from  Rouen. 


94  Minion,  or  1-point,  solid 

John  Day  of  London  (born  1522,  died  1584)  was  the  first  English 
type-founder  of  marked  ability.  He  was  not  a  founder  to  the  trade : 
he  made  types  only  for  the  needs  of  his  own  printing  office,  which 
was  patronized  by  Archbishop  Parker.  For  that  dignitary  he  made 
the  first  distinctively  English  type,  a  full  font  of  Saxon,  which  was 
intended  for  ^Elfric  s  Saxon  Homily  and  the  Saxon  Gospels.  Reed 
says  that  ' '  the  accuracy  and  regularity  with  which  this  fount  was 
cut  was  highly  creditable  to  Day's  excellence  as  a  founder."  About 
1572  he  cut  a  font  of  double  pica  italic  and  roman,  which  was  fully 
equal  to  any  then  in  use  on  the  Continent.  Archbishop  Parker,  in 
a  letter  to  Lord  Burleigh,  dated  December  13,  1572,  writes:  "To 
the  better  accomplishment  of  this  worke  and  other  that  shall  followe, 
I  have  spoken  to  Daie  the  printer  to  cast  a  new  Italian  letter,  which 
he  is  doinge,  and  it  will  cost  him  xl  marks  ;  and  loth  he  and  other 
printers  be  to  printe  any  Lattin  booke,  because  they  will  not  heare 
be  uttered,  and  for  that  Bookes  printed  in  Englande  be  in  suspition 
abroad."  Another  writer  adds  that  "our  Black  English  letter  was 
not  proper  for  the  printing  of  a  Latin  book."  These  fonts  of  roman 
and  italic  were  made  to  line  with  each  other,  a  nicety  too  often  dis- 
regarded by  other  printers.  Day's  services  to  typography  were 
many  :  he  improved  the  shapes  of  the  Greek  letter  of  his  day ;  he 
made  types  for  music,  "  lozenge -shaped  and  hollow  ";  he  cut  types 
on  wood  for  Hebrew  when  they  were  needed  in  his  texts  ;  he  made 
signs,  mathematical  and  other,  not  before  cast  in  type  ;  while  his 
works  abound  with  handsome  woodcut  initials,  vignettes  and  por- 
traits, besides  a  considerable  variety  of  metal  "  flowers  "  or  border 
ornaments.  Some  of  the  woodcuts  he  had  made  for  his  books, 
of  exceptional  merit,  have  never  received  the  consideration  they  de- 
serve. His  most  noticeable  work  was  Fox's  "  Book  of  Martyrs," 
or  as  it  was  then  called,"  Acts  and  Monuments,"  of  which  he  printed 
many  editions.  His  device  was  a  pun  on  his  name  —  a  sleeping 
man  aroused  by  his  friend  and  by  the  rising  sun  —  with  the  words, 
"Arise,  for  it  is  Day."  Day  seems  to  have  been  one  of  the  few 
prosperous  early  printers.  Strype,  in  his  life  of  Archbishop  Parker, 
has  this  notice:  "And  with  the  Archbishop's  engravers  we  may 
join  his  printer  Day,  who  printed  '  British  Antiquities '  and  divers 
other  books  by  his  order  ...  for  whom  the  Archbishop  had  a  par- 
ticular kindness.  .  .  .  Day  was  more  ingenious  and  industrious  in 
his  art,  and  probably  richer  too,  than  the  rest,  and  so  became  envied 
by  the  rest  of  his  fraternity,  who  hindered  what  they  could  the  sale 
of  his  books  ;  and  he  had,  in  the  year  1572,  upon  his  hands,  to  the 
value  of  two  or  three  thousand  pounds  worth,  a  great  sum  in  those 
days.  His  friends  procured  [for]  him  from  the  Dean  and  Chapter 
of  St.  Paul's  a  lease  of  a  little  shop  in  St.  Paul's  Churchyard."  The 
tablet  to  his  memory  has  a  long  inscription  from  which'  these  lines 
are  selected  :  |  Two  wyves  he  had,  pertakers  of  his  payne,  |  Each 
wyfe  twelve  babes,  and  each  of  them  one  more.  |  Day  published 
about  250  works.  Dibdin  says,  "  (if  we  except  Grafton)  Day  seems 
indeed  the  Plantin  of  old  English  typographers,  while  his  character 
and  reputation  scarcely  suffer  diminution  from  a  comparison  with 
those  of  his  illustrious' contemporary. " 


Minion,  or  1-point,  leaded  95 

English  typography  entered  upon  a  period  of  distinct  decadence 
after  the  death  of  John  Day.  Christopher  Barker,  who  was  queen's 
printer  in  1582,  made  this  report  upon  the  condition  of  the  trade. 
"  In  King  Edward  the  Sixt  his  Dayes,  Printers  and  printing  began 
greatly  to  increase  ;  but  the  provision  of  letter,  and  of  many  other 
thinges  belonging  to  printing  was  so  exceeding  chargeable  that 
most  of  those  printers  were  Dryven  throughe  necessitie,  to  com- 
pounde  before  with  the  booksellers  at  so  low  value,  as  the  printers 
themselves  were  most  tymes  small  gayners  and  often  loosers.  The 
Booksellers  now  keep  no  printing  house,  neither  beare  any  charge 
of  letter,  or  other  furniture,  but  onlie  pay  for  the  workmanship  ...  so 
that  the  artificer  printer,  growing  every  Dayemore  and  more  unable 
to  provide  letter  and  other  furniture  .  .  .  will  in  time  be  an  occasion 
of  great  discredit  to  the  professours  of  the  arte."  Barker  says  there 
were  in  1582  "  twenty-two  printing  howses  in  London,  where  eight 
or  ten  at  the  most  would  suffice  for  all  England,  yea,  and  Scotland 
too."  The  first  English  type-founder  to  the  trade  seems  to  have 
been  Benjamin  Sympson  of  London,  who  in  1597  was  enjoined  by 
the  Stationers'  Company  "  not  to  cast  any  types  or  to  deliver  them 
without  advertising  the  master  and  wardens  in  writing,  with  the 
names  of  the  parties  for  whom  they  were  intended."  This  is  the 
only  record  concerning  Sympson.  In  the  decree  of  Star  Chamber 
made  July  n,  1637,  these  four  type-founders  are  named,  John  Gris-: 
mand,  Thomas  Wright,  Arthur  Nichols,  Alexander  Fifield,  who  have 
recently  been  known  as  the  Star  Chamber  founders.  Of  Wright 
and  Fifield  nothing  more  is  known.  In  1649  John  Grismand  entered 
into  a  bond  of  ^300  with  two  sureties  not  to  print  seditious  work. 
In  the  same  year  Arthur  Nichols,  writing  to  the  Archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury, complained  that  "of  so  small  benefitt  hath  his  Art  bine, 
that  for  four  years  worke  and  practice  he  hath  not  taken  above  forty- 
eight  pounds,  and  had  it  not  bine  for  other  imploymente  he  might 
have  perisht."  It  is  supposed,  but  not  certainly  known,  that  these 
four  founders  contributed  the  types  for  the  London  Polyglot  of  1657, 
the  fourth  great  Bible  of  the  world,  and  the  best  specimen  of  English 
typography  in  the  seventeenth  century.  They  are  consequently 
now  known  as  the  Polyglot  founders.  Nicholas  Nichols,  son  of  the 
Arthur  Nichols  previously  mentioned,  in  1665  petitioned  to  be  ap- 
pointed "  Letter  Founder  to  your  Majesties  Presses."  The  petition 
was  granted,  but  there  is  no  evidence  that  he  was  a  skilled  founder. 


96  Nonpareil,  or  6-point,  solid 

Joseph  Moxon,  a  type-founder  of  London  from  1659,  to  J683,  has  distinction 
as  the  first  English  writer  on  the  practice  of  typography.  He  had  been  a 
maker  of  mathematical  instruments,  and  by  reason  of  his  skill  and  scientific 
attainments  was  appointed  hydrographer  to  the  king.  In  1676  he  published 
his  first  book:  "Regulse  Trium  Ordinum  Literarum  Typographicarum,  or  the 
Rules  of  the  Three  Orders  of  Print  Letters,  viz :  the  Roman,  Italick,  English, 
—  Capitals  and  Small;  showing  how  they  are  compounded  of  Geometrick 
Figures  and  mostly  made  by  Rule  and  Compass."  In  1683  he  published 
"  Mechanick  Exercises,  or  the  Doctrine  of  Handy- Works,  applied  to  the  Art  of 
Printing."  These  volumes  are  thoroughly  illustrated  expositions  of  every 
branch  of  typography  from  punch-cutting  to  presswork.  Moxon  says  that 
letter-cutting  had  been  "  kept  so  concealed  among  the  Artificers  of  it,  that  I 
cannot  learne  anyone  hath  taught  it  any  other,  but  every  one  that  has  used  it 
Learnt  it  of  his  own  Genuine  Inclination."  This  leads  his  reader  to  infer  that 
he  was  entirely  self-taught.  His  early  rude  types,  and  his  models  for  types 
as  laid  down  in  his  first  book,  strengthen  this  inference ;  but  the  careful  en- 
gravings of  the  tools  of  the  punch-cutter  and  his  explanations  of  all  the  pro- 
cesses of  type-founding,  contained  in  his  second  book,  show  that  he  was  then 
thoroughly  instructed  in  every  branch  of  typography  and  had  right  to  speak 
with  authority.  He  was  deeply  impressed  with  the  great  beauty  of  the  Van 
Dijk  types,  and  makes  use  of  them  as  models  to  enforce  his  theories  of  the 
value  of  geometrical  rules  in  designing  letters.  No  type-founder  of  his  time, 
or  afterward,  accepted  his  geometrical  formulas,  which  all  founders  say  are 
impracticable,  but  the  information  he  gives  about  the  practice  of  other  branches 
can  be  read  now  with  pleasure  and  profit.  It  does  not  appear  that  he  made 
any  reformation  in  English  typography.  The  printers  of  London  continued  to 
prefer  the  types  of  Dutch  founders.  Robert  Andrews  succeeded  Moxon,  after 
1683,  and  continued  the  business  of  type-founding  to  1733.  His  foundry  was 
probably  the  richest  in  matrices  of  all  in  England,  but  he  was  not  regarded  a 
good  workman.  A  font  of  Saxon  cut  by  him  for  the  University  Press  at  Ox- 
ford was  found  unsatisfactory  and  put  away.  Most  of  the  types  of  learned 
languages  for  which  the  University  foundry  was  famous  were  cast  in  matrices 
made  abroad.  Their  romans  and  italics  were  largely  of  Dutch  manufacture, 
and  they  depended  on  French  founders  for  Greek,  Hebrew,  and  Oriental  types. 
In  1700,  when  the  University  of  Cambridge  wished  to  buy  in  Paris  a  font  of 
the  Greek  types  known  as  the  King's  Greek,  the  French  Academy  made  it  a 
condition  of  purchase  that  all  books  printed  therefrom  should  bear  an  imprint 
setting  forth  that  the  types  were  from  the  French  king's  royal  printing  house  — 
a  condition  which  was  refused  by  the  University.  The  Oxford  University  had 
a  press  of  its  own  as  early  as  1478,  but  this  press  did  little  work  of  value  before 
1585.  Dr.  John  Fell,  the  vice-chancellor,  presented  it  with  a  complete  type- 
foundry  in  1667.  Ten  years  after  Mr.  Francis  Junius  enriched  the  University 
Press  with  a  valuable  collection  of  punches  and  matrices.  Most  of  them  are 
now  obsolete,  but  Reed  says  that  under  able  management  the  foundry  is  in 
active  operation,  and  that  the  University  Press  possesses  the  largest  collection 
of  polyglot  matrices  of  any  foundry  in  the  kingdom.  The  only  notable  founder 
at  Oxford  during  the  seventeenth  century  was  Peter  Walpergen,  a  Hollander. 
He  was  succeeded  by  Sylvester  Andrews  (before  1714),  who  was  the  son  of 
Robert  Andrews,  the  London  founder.  James  Grover,  who  began  business 


__jey   introduced    "  bcnptc         , 

and  several  forms  of  ornamental  letters.  In  1728  Thomas  Grover's  daughters, 
who  were  his  heirs,  tried  unsuccessfully  to  sell  the  foundry  in  bulk.  William 
Caslon's  offer  for  it  was  refused  as  too  small.  For  thirty  years  the  foundry 
was  neglected,  and  locked  up  in  the  house  of  Nutt  the  printer,  who  seems  to 
have  made  use  of  it  for  his  own  benefit.  After  the  death  of  the  last  of  Grover's 
daughters,  the  foundry  was  sold  to  John  James. 


Nonpareil,  or  6-point,  leaded  97 

Thomas  James,  one  of  the  apprentices  of  Robert  Andrews,  began  business 
in  London  as  a  type-founder  about  the  year  1710.  There  is  no  evidence  that 
he  had  any  skill  as  a  punch-cutter.  It  was,  probably,  a  conviction  of  his  own 
inability,  and  of  corresponding  inability  on  the  part  of  the  few  punch-cutters 
then  in  London,  that  induced  him  to  go  to  Holland  to  buy  the  punches  and 
matrices  he  needed  to  equip  his  foundry.  Rowe  Mores,  in  his  "  Dissertation  on 
English  Founders,"  has  reprinted  some  of  the  curious  letters  then  written  from 
Holland  by  Thomas  to  his  brother  John  who  was  to  be  his  associate  in  the  busi- 
ness. From  these  letters  it  appears  that  the  Dutch  founders,  willing  to  sell 
types,  were  not  so  ready  to  sell  matrices,  and  proposed  to  part  only  with  those 
they  esteemed  the  least.  Voskens,  with  whom  James  tried  to  deal,  saw  in  him 
a  future  competitor  and  gave  him  scant  civility.  Cupi  and  Rolij,  two  punch- 
cutters  for  Dutch  founders,  were  the  men  from  whom  he  bought  most  of  his 
materials.  The  price  paid  for  those  he  got  are  not  stated,  but  James  seems  to 
have  been  well  satisfied  with  his  purchases,  which  were  effected  only  after  a 
deal  of  suspicion  and  higgling  on  both  sides.  With  these  matrices  the  brothers 
commenced  and  for  many  years  maintained  a  successful  business  in  London. 
Thomas  James  earned  an  unenviable  prominence  as  the  first  antagonist  to 
stereotyping.  In  1729  William  Ged  of  Edinburgh,  who  had  invented  a  use- 
ful process  of  stereotyping,  was  induced  to  associate  with  him  Thomas  James 
as  a  partner.  James  played  false  from  the  beginning,  and  supplied  him  with 
worn  types  to  bring  the  invention  into  discredit.  By  his  connivance  the  com- 
positors made  errors,  and  the  pressmen  bruised  the  plates.  After  three  years 
of  hopeless  struggle  with  these  covert  enemies  Ged  abandoned  his  work  in 
London  and  returned  to  Edinburgh,  where  he  printed  from  stereotype  plates 
an  edition  of  Sallust  before  his  death  in  1749.  In  1781  Dr.  Tilloch  of  Edin- 
burgh, with  Foulis,  then  printer  to  the  University  at  Glasgow,  reinvented  a 
new  process  of  stereotype  with  which  they  printed  several  books.  Van  der 
May  in  1705,  and  Firmin-Didot,  in  1795,  also  made  practicable  plates,  but  the 
art  of  stereotype  was  not  really  successful  until  it  was  perfected  by  Stanhope 
in  1800.  The  business  of  James  declined  before  his  death  in  1736.  His  son 
John  continued  the  policy  of  his  father  in  buying  matrices  from  other  small 
foundries,  but  with  a  steadily  diminishing  hold  on  English  printers.  Nearly 
all  of  the  types  of  this  foundry  were  out  of  fashion.  At  his  death  in  1772  all 
the  material  passed  by  purchase  into  the  hands  of  the  antiquary,  Rowe  Mores, 
who  did  not  choose  to  continue  the  business  and  who  found  it  difficult  to  sell 
the  matrices.  Mores  says  that  the  "  waste  and  pye"  of  this  foundry  contained 
upwards  of  six  thousand  matrices,  the  assorting  of  which  gave  him  great 
trouble,  but  that  he  was  gratified  to  find  in  the  rubbish  of  punches  some  orig- 
inals of  Wynkyn  de  Worde.  "  They  are  truly  vetustate  formaque  etsqualore 
venerabiles."  At  the  auction  sale  in  1782  the  contents  of  the  foundry  were 
dispersed,  Dr.  Fry  buying  the  matrices  of  the  curious  characters.  "With  this 
sale,"  says  Reed,  "disappeared  the  last  of  the  old  English  foundries." 
13 


98  Agate,  or  5&-point,  solid 

William  Caslon  of  London  (born  1692,  died  1766),  the  ablest  type-founder  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  was  one  of  many  eminent  punch-cutters  who  never 
served  a  regular  apprenticeship  to  the  trade.  In  his  boyhood  he  had  been 
taught  the  art  of  a  general  engraver  on  metal,  and  was  employed  .for  most 
of  his  time  at  engraving  gun  locks  and  barrels,  and  letters  and  ornaments 
for  bookbinders'  stamps.  About  the  year  1719,  when  he  was  twenty-seven 
years  of  age,  his  marked  ability  in  making  letters  attracted  the  attention 
of  the  printers  John  Watts  and  William  Bowyer,  who  advised  him  to  devote 
himself  to  making  punches  for  types.  His  first  commission  was  the  cutting 
of  punches  for  a  font  of  Arabic,  which  was  so  well  done  that  Bowyer,  Watts, 
and  Bettenham,  another  printer,  lent  him  £500  to  establish  him  in  business 
as  a  type-founder.  His  next  task  was  the  cutting  of  a  font  of  Coptic,  which 
he  did  with  equal  ability.  A  full  font  of  pica  with  its  mated  italic  perfected 
by  him,  and  issued  to  the  trade  about  the  year  1721,  was  so  much  better 
than  any  then  in  use,  either  English  or  Dutch,  that  his  superior  abilities  as  a 
founder  were  admitted  without  question  by  all  printers  and  publishers.  How 
he  organized  his  foundry,  how  he  secured  proper  workmen,  and  obtained  a 
full  knowledge  of  the  technicalities  of  this  jealously  guarded  trade,  has  never 
been  fully  told,  but  the  work  was  well  done.  In  1734  he  issued  a  sheet  of 
specimens  showing  twelve  faces  of  roman  and  italic,  seven  faces  of  two-lines, 
seven  faces  of  flowers,  and  seventeen  faces  of  foreign  letters  —  all  of  which, 
with  three  exceptions,  were  cut  by  his  own  hands  in  fourteen  years.  Many 
of  the  roman  and  italic  faces  are  now  in  use  under  the  name  of  Old-style. 
Nichols  wisely  says  :  "  For  clearness  and  uniformity,  for  the  use  of  the  rea'der 
and  the  student,  it  is  doubtful  whether  it  [the  Caslon  fashion  of  letter]  has 
been  excelled  by  any  modern  production."  In  1742  Caslon's  eldest  son  Will- 
iam (known  in  the  trade  as  Caslon  n)  was  admitted  to  partnership,  and 
continued  the  business  until  his  death  in  1778.  The  son  was  a  good  founder 
and  fully  maintained  the  reputation  of  the  house,  but  he  showed  an  ungen- 
erous depreciation  of  the  work  of  his  father's  old  apprentice,  Joseph  Jack- 
son. The  quality  of  its  productions  is  fairly  shown  in  the  "  Specimen  of 
Printing  Types,  by  W.  Caslon  &  Sons,  letter-founders  in  London,"  which  is  in- 
serted in  Luckombe's  "  Concise  History  of  the  Origin  and  Progress  of  Print- 
ing," of  1770.  No  other  foundry  of  that  period,  nor  for  a  long  time  after, 
showed  a  series  of  faces  so  symmetrical.  William  Caslon  in  succeeded  to 
the  management  of  the  business,  but  in  1792  he  sold  his  share  in  it  to  his 
mother  and  his  brother  Henry's  widow,  and  bought  the  foundry  of  the 
deceased  Joseph  Jackson.  Under  his  management  the  Jackson  foundry  was 
much  enlarged  and  improved.  About  the  year  1803  the  fourth  William  Oaslon 
was  admitted  to  partnership,  and  the  name  of  the  firm  became  W.  Caslon  & 
Son.  In  1807  the  senior  partner  retired,  dying  in  1833.  His  son  William  Cas- 
lon iv  added  to  the  stock  and  extended  the  business  of  the  foundry,  but  to 
some  extent  damaged  his  reputation  as  an  intelligent  founder  by  an  unsuc- 
cessful attempt  at  making  short,  wedge-shaped  types,  intended  to  be  fitted 
and  fastened  on  the  periphery  of  a  cylindi'ical  printing  machine.  In  1819  he 
sold  his  foundry  to  Blake,  Garnett  &  Co.,  who  removed  the  material  to  Shef- 
field, where  its  work  was  afterward  done  under  the  name  of  Stephenson, 
Blake  &  Co.  The  older  Caslon  foundry  continued  to  be  managed  by  Mrs. 
William  Caslon,  mother  to  Caslon  in.  She  was  an  active  member  of  the 
Association  of  Type-founders,  and  of  marked  business  sagacity.  Her  great 
error  was  her  unwillingness  to  conform  to  the  fashions  of  the  day  in  type. 
She  died  in  1795.  The  business  was  carried  on  with  ability  by  Mrs.  Henry 
Caslon  until  her  death  in  1809.  Her  son  Henry,  in  partnership  with  John 
Catherwood  until  1821,  and  afterward  with  Martin  W.  Livermore,  continued 
as  the  nominal  head  of  the  house  until  his  death  in  1874.  This  fifth  genera- 
tion was  the  last  of  the  Caslons,  but  the  house  is  still  flourishing,  as  success- 
ful and  as  highly  esteemed  as  ever,  under  the  management  of  T.  W.  Smith. 
After  a  neglect  of  nearly  fifty  years  the  Caslon  cut  of  letter  was  I'estored  to 
favor.  In  1843  Whittin'gham  of  the  Chiswick  Press  was  requested  by  the 
publisher  Pickering  to  reprint  "The  Diary  of  Lady  Willoughby,"  a  fiction 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  in  an  appropriate  old-style  dress  of  letter  for 
which  he  had  no  suitable  face  of  type.  At  his  request  the  Caslon  Foundry 
took  out  of  its  vaults  the  matrices  for  great-primer  cut  by  the  first  Caslon, 
and  cast  a  small  font  for  this  book.  This  old-style  face  met  with  such  ap- 
proval that  all  the  other  matrices  of  the  Caslon  old-style  were  revived. 


Agate,  or  5%-point,  leaded  99 

John  Baskerville  of  Birmingham  (born  1706,  died  1775)  was  Caslon's  ablest 
rival.  Like  him  he  served  no  apprenticeship  to  type-making.  His  first 
serious  business  was  that  of  a  writing  master,  and  a  designer  and  cutter  of 
letters  on  tablets  and  tombstones.  Afterward  he  began  the  manufacture  of 
japanned  wares,  in  the  sale  of  which  he  was  remarkably  successful.  In  1750 
he  began  to  cut  punches,  and  to  create  typographic  material  for  printing  a 
book  which  he  intended  should  more  cleai'ly  show  his  notions  about  types 
and  printing.  He  says  he  spent  six  years  and  six  hundred  pounds  before  he 
made  a  satisfactory  type.  His  first  book,  "Virgil,"  in  great-primer  letter,  es- 
tablished his  reputation  as  an  able  designer  of  types,  yet  it  met  with  much 
hostile  criticism  as  unnecessarily  slender  and  delicate.  His  second  attempt, 
a  "  Greek  Testament"  in  great-primer,  was  generally  condemned.  The  types 
of  this  book  were  too  stiff  and  too  condensed  to  please  tastes  formed  on 
earlier  models.  His  editions  of  the  "  Paradise  Lost,"  the  Bible,  and  the 
"  Common  Prayer,"  fully  regained  for  him  the  reputation  he  had  damaged 
by  his  Greek.  In  1758  he  had  cut  eight  fonts  of  the  more  used  sizes  of  roman, 
and  was  then  ready  to  receive  orders  from  the  printing  trade.  Although 
his  types  and  his  printing  were  much  admired  by  critics,  his  types  were 
not  bought  by  printers,  who  objected  to  them  as  weak  and  unfit  for  wear. 
They  preferred  the  stronger  ones  of  Caslon.  In  1760  he  tried  ineffectually  to 
sell  his  types,  and  to  retire  from  the  business  of  printing,  because  he  was 
heartily  tired  of  it,  and  repented  that  he  had  ever  attempted  it.  Four  years 
after  Baskerville's  death,  his  widow  sold  all  his  types  and  type-making 
material  to  the  Societe  Litteraire-Typographique,  who  removed  them  to 
Kehl,  near  Strasburg,  where,  under  the  management  of  Beaumarchais,  they 
made  use  of  some  of  the  types  for  a  complete  edition  in  seventy  volumes  of 
the  works  of  Voltaire.  So  ended  the  labors  of  one  of  the  great  British  type- 
founders. Alexander  Wilson  of  Glasgow  was  another  competitor  of  the  Cas- 
lons.  His  education  had  been  that  of  a  "  surgeon's  assistant  or  apothecary," 
but  a  chance  visit  to  a  type-foundry  in  London  led  him  to  consider,  and 
finally  to  attempt,  the  making  of  types  by  a  new  method.  In  this  plan  he 
associated  with  him  John  Baine.  What  the  new  method  was  has  never  been 
told,  but  it  must  have  been  impracticable,  for  their  first  types,  sold  at  St.  An- 
drew's in  1742,  were  made  by  the  old  approved  method.  The  partners  seem  to 
have  been  very  successful,  selling  types  not  only  in  Scotland  but  in  Ireland 
and  North  America.  In  1749  Baine  withdrew  and  established  a  separate 
foundry  at  Dublin.  Wilson's  best  production  was  a  font  of  double  pica  Greek, 
specially  cut  for  an  edition  of  Homer,  in  four  folio  volumes,  admirably  printed 
by  Robert  and  Andrew  Foulis,  and  intended  for  Flaxman's  celebrated  illus- 
trations. In  1760  Wilson  was  appointed  a  professor  of  practical  astronomy 
in  the  University  of  Glasgow.  The  type-foundry  was  removed  to  that  city, 
and  its  management  devolved  upon  Wilson's  elder  sons.  This  Glasgow 
foundry  soon  became  a  formidable  rival  to  the  London  founders,  for  it  under- 
sold them  in  England.  In  1825  the  proprietors  of  the  foundry  were  Andrew 
and  Alexander  Wilson,  son  and  grandson  of  the  originator.  In  1830  Andrew 
Wilson  died.  His  sons  Alexander  and  Patrick  decided  in  1832  to  establish  a 
branch  in  Edinburgh.  In  1834  the  Glasgow  foundry  was  transferred  to  Lon- 
don, where,  after  many  vicissitudes,  it  was  finally  merged  in  that  of  the  Cas- 
lons.  The  Edinburgh  branch,  known  as  Marr,  Gallic,  &  Co.,  was  also  trans- 
ferred to  London,  and  did  business  as  the  Marr  Type-Founding  Company. 


100  Pearl,  or  5-point,  solid 

Thomas  Cottrell,  one  of  the  apprentices  printing  trade,   and  Fry  was  compelled, 

of  the  Caslon  house,  began  a  type  business  much  against  his  will,  to  cut  an  entirely 

on  his  own  account  in  1757.  in  partnership  new  series  effaces.     The  Caslon  style  was 

with  a  fellow-apprentice,  Joseph  Jackson  ;  selected  as  the  most  salable,  but  before  the 

but  Jackson  left  him  in  1759  to  go  to  sea.  cutting  of  the  series  had  been  completed, 

Cottrell's  first  specimen  book  was  proba-  a  fickle  public  taste  had  put  the  Caslon 

bly  published  in  1766.    It  shows  roman  and  style  aside,  and  showed  its  preference  for 

italic  in  sizes  from  five-line  to  brevier,  with  newer    forms.      In    1782    Fry  bought   the 

a  new  form  of  engrossing,  Domesday,  and  larger  part  of  the  old  James  foundry,  which 

five  pages  of  "  flowers      or  border  orna-  was  rich  in  foreign  and  learned  characters, 

ments.     His  styles  were  of  the  approved  He  died  in   1787,  and  was  succeeded  by 

Caslon  model,  but  not  equal  to  those  of  his  his  son   Edmund  Fry,  who  afterward  ad- 

master.    Mores  says  he  made  "types  of  mitted  as  partners  Isaac  Steele  and  George 

great  bulk,   as  high  as  twelve-line  pica."  Knowles.     In  1799  this  foundry  published 

Cottrell  died  in  1785.     In  1794  his  foundry  "Pantographia:  containing  accurate  copies 

became  the  property  of  Robert  Thorne,  of  all  the  known  Alphabets  in  the  World," 

one  of  his  apprentices,  who,  in  his  sped-  in  which  were  shown    the   characters   of 

men  book  of  1798,  appears  to  have  dis-  nearly  two  hundred  languages.    Although 

carded  all  of  his  master's   fonts,   and  to  this  foundry  attained  a  high  rank  for  its 

have  created  an   entirely  new  series,  re-  oriental    and   "learned"   types,  it   never 

markable  for  their  lightness,  grace,  and  achieved  a  commercial  success.     In  1828  it 

uniformity.     But  great  changes  had  been  was  sold  to  William  Thorowgood,  through 

going  on  in  public  taste.    Light  faces  were  whom  it  ultimately  became  a  part  of  the 

disapproved;   bold  and  black  faces  were  present  Fann  street  letter-foundry  of  Sir 

demanded.   To  meet  this  demand,  Thorne  Charles  Reed's  Sons. 

showed  in  1803  a  full  series  of  "  improved  Joseph  Jackson  began  the  work  of  type- 
types  "  of  the  bold-face  which  so  seriously  founding  as  an  apprentice  of  Caslon  I. 
vulgarized  the  book  printing  of  the  first  He  was  taught  every  branch  of  the  busi- 
half  of  this  century.  Subsequent  speci-  ness  but  that  of  punch-cutting.  Thisjeal- 
mensfrom  his  foundry  showed  still  blacker  ously  guarded  mystery  was  practised  only 
and  more  unsightly  faces  of  large  romans,  by  Caslon  and  his  son  in  a  private  room  : 
but  they  were  much  admired  and  freely  but  Jackson  bored  a  hole  in  the  wainscot 
bought  by  job  printers  in  quest  of  novelty,  of  an  adjoining  room  at  different  times,  and 
Thorne  died  in  1820.  His  business  was  carefully  watched  every  process.  When 
bought  and  carried  on  by  William  Tho-  Jackson  thought  he  was  able  to  do  the 
rowgood,  who  materially  enlarged  the  work,  he  cut  a  punch,  which  he  showed 
foundry  with  new  fonts  of  foreign  charac-  with  great  pride  to  his  master,  expecting 
ters  —  some  cut  under  his  own  direction,  to  get  his  approval.  But  Caslon  was  much 
some  bought  abroad,  but  most  of  them  displeased;  instead  of  commendation  he 
were  from  the  very  full  collection  of  the  gave  him  a  blow  and  abuse,  and  threat- 
modern  Polyglot  Foundry  of  Dr.  Fry.  In  ened  to  send  him  to  jail  if  he  repeated 
1838  Thorowgood  admitted  Robert  Besley  his  offense.  Jackson's  mother  soothed  his 
to  partnership.  On  Thorowgood's  retire-  wounded  feelings,  bought  him  new  tools, 
ment  in  1849,  Benjamin  Fox,  a  punch-cut-  and  encouraged  him  to  continue  his  punch- 
ter  of  ability,  was  admitted,  and  the  firm  cutting  studies.  Here  it  may  be  said  that 
was  known  as  Robert  Besley  &  Co.  Mr.  nearly  every  one  of  the  eminent  English 
(afterward  Sir)  Charles  Reed,  a  printer,  punch-cutters  attained  his  proficiency  in 
succeeded  in  1861,  and  the  foundry  was  this  art,  not  by  the  smooth  road  of  appren- 
then  known  as  that  of  Reed  &  Fox.  Sir  ticeship  and  special  instruction,  but  by 
Charles  Reed  died  in  1881,  and  the  busi.  breaking  through  the  obstructions  made 
ness  was  continued  by  his  sons,  one  of  by  masters  and  fellow-workmen.  Jackson 
whom  was  Talbot  Baines  Reed,  the  author  served  his  time  as  an  apprentice,  but  again 
of  '•  A  History  of  the  Old  English  Letter  offended  his  master  by  a  request  for  more 
Foundries,"  to  whom  the  writer  is  indebted  wages,  for  which  offense  he  was  discharged 
for  much  of  the  information  given  in  these  from  the  foundry.  Then  he  and  his  fellow- 
pages  concerning  English  founders.  apprentice  Cottrell  formed  a  copartnership 

Joseph  Fry  began  business  in  1764  as  a  and  began  business  for  themselves  in  1757. 

type-founder  in  Bristol.    He  had  been  edu-  They  did  not  find  enough  profit  in  their 

cated  as  a  physician,  and  had  distinction  venture  for  two,  and  Jackson  soon  aban- 

as  a  ripe  scholar,  but  he  was  impelled  to  doned  the  work  and  went  to  sea  as  an 

the  mechanical  trade  of  type-founding  as  armorer.     On  his  return  he  made  a  new 

Moxon  had  been  — by  "genuine   inclina-  attempt  at  establishing  a  type-foundry,  not 

tion,"  and  a  strong  desire  to  emulate  the  with  Cottrell,  but  through  the  aid  of  two 

achievements  of  Baskerville,  whose  styles  fellow-workmen,  who  allowed  him  £62  8s. 

of  letter  he  made  the  models  of  his  earlier  per  annum  for  his  living  expenses.      On 

Kpes.      His   first  partners  were  William  this  narrow  money  basis  he  laid  the  foun- 

ne,  a  printer,  ana  Isaac  Moore,  a  white-  dation  of  what  afterward  became  one  of  the 

smith.     Bristol  was  found  too  small  a  field  largest  of  British  type-foundries.    His  first 

for  the  new  enterprise,  and  they  moved  work,  in  1763,  met  the  approval  of  Bowyer, 

the  foundry  to  London.     Here  they  met  a  the  great  printer  of  London,  who  told  him 

serious  disappointment.    The  Baskerville  that  he  had  been  the  means  of  old  Caslon 

style  of  face  was  decidedly  rejected  by  the  riding  in  his  coach,  and  that  perhaps  he 


Pearl,  or  5-point,  leaded  101 

might  be  the  means  of  doing  the  same  for  his  successor  by  Caslon's  purchase  of  the 

Jackson.     Even  the  elder  Caslon  unbent  foundry.    John  Nichols,  the  printer,  lent 

his  austerity,  and  told  his  disparaging  son  young  Figgins  the  money  needed  to  estab- 

that  Jackson's  art  and  skill  would  yet  com-  lish  him  in  business.     He  began,  in  1792, 

mand  respect.     In  1773  he  had  organized  with  a  great  undertaking  —  the  cutting  of 

a    small    but  valuable  foundry,   and    had  the  double  english  (commenced  by  Joseph 

earned  reputation  as  a  skilful  mechanic  Jackson)  intended  for  the   Macklin   "  Bi- 

and  punch-cutter.     The  types    he   made  ble."    Reed  says:    "  Of  the  excellence  of 

for  a  facsimile  edition  of  the  "  Domesday  the  performance  both  as  a  facsimile  and 

Book,"   admirably  printed  by  Nichols  in  as  a  work  of  art,  a  reference  to  the  splen- 

two  folio  volumes,   extorted  praise  from  did  Bible  itself,  and  the  no  less  splendid 

every  type-founder  and  every  man  of  let-  edition  of  Thomson's  '  Seasons,'  in  which 

ters.     He  was  equally  successful    in    his  the  same  type  was  used  in  1797,  is  the  most 

facsimiles  of  the  Greek  types  of  the  "  Co-  eloquent  testimony.   Mr.  Figgins  received 

dex  Bezae."   His  most  important  work  was  the  honour  of  being  named  on  the   title- 

the  double  english   roman  made  for  the  page  of  the  latter  work,  which  still  remains 

"  Macklin  Bible,"  in  seven  volumes  royal  one  of  the  finest  achievements  of  English 

folio.      Jackson  did  not    live  to  see    the  typography."     He  was  as  remarkable  for 

conclusion  of  this  work,  which  had  to  be  his  industry  as  for  his  skill.    No  foundry 

supplemented  by  the  labor  of  a  former  ap-  of  the  time  equaled  his  in  the  number  or 

prentice ;  but  the  design  of  the  letter  was  general  merit  of  its  productions.     He  cut 

his,  and  Nichols  says  it  was  a  pattern  of  a  new  face  of  Greek  for  the  Oxford  Press, 

the  most  perfect  symmetry  to  which  the  new  forms  of  Persian,  Telugu,  Domesday, 

art  had  arrived.    He  died  in  1792,  and  his  Hebrew  with  points,  a  facsimile  of  Cax- 

foundry  was  bought  by  William  Caslon  III.  ton's  first  letter,  and  a  series  of  intricate 

Baskerville's  ablest  successor,  not  to  his  German-texts.  After  a  general  commenda- 
foundry  or  business,  but  to  his  skill  and  tion  of  his  work,  Hansard  adds  :  "  I  feel  it 
style,  was  his  apprentice  Robert  Martin,  particularly  incumbent  on  me  to  add  .  .  . 
whose  brother  William,  in  1790,  became  that  he  has  strayed  less  into  the  folly  of 
the  head  of  a  small  but  famous  foundry,  fat-faced  preposterous  disproportions  than 
Boydell  and  Nicol  had  matured  plans  for  either  Thome,  Fry,  or  Caslon."  Mr.  Fig- 
their  great  edition  of  "  Shakespeare,"  to  gins  relinquished  business  in  1836,  and  died 
be  printed  by  Bulmer,  and  William  Mar-  in  1844.  His  two  sons,  Vincent  Figgins  II. 
tin  was  engaged  by  them  to  make  "  imita-  and  James  Figgins,  succeeded  in  1836. 
tions  of  the  sharp  and  fine  letter  used  by  Vincent  Figgins  II.  died  in  1860,  leaving 
the  French  and  Italian  printers."  The  the  business  to  be  carried  on  by  James 
appearance  of  this  book,  soon  followed  by  Figgins  I.  and  his  son  James  Figgins  II., 
an  equally  admirable  edition  of  Milton,  the  latter  being  the  present  proprietor, 
was  an  unexpected  revelation  of  the  pos-  William  Miller,  once  the  foreman  of  the 
sibilities  of  typography.  Under  the  able  Wilson  Foundry  at  Glasgow,  began  busi- 
management  of  Bulmer,  the  Shakespeare  ness  on  his  own  account  at  Edinburgh  in 
Press  printed  many  admirable  books,  of  1809.  From  the  beginning  his  foundry 
which  these  are  the  most  esteemed :  Dib-  had  a  remarkable  success ;  it  was  a  rival 
din's  "Typographical  Antiquities,"  the  not  only  of  the  Glasgow,  but  of  the  London 
"Decameron,"  M'Creery's  " The  Press,"  founders.  In  1832  William  Richard  was 
and  the  "Poems"  of  Goldsmith  and  Bar-  admitted  as  partner;  in  1838  the  name  of 
nell,  for  most  of  which  Martin  provided  the  firm  was  changed  to  Miller  &  Richard, 
the  types.  All  were  based  on  the  Bas-  Reed  says  that  this  foundry  was  the  first 
kerville  models.  But  these  types  were  to  introduce  successfully  type-casting  ma- 
admirable  only  when  carefully  printed,  chinery  in  Great  Britain.  William  Miller 
Martin  was  not  able  to  change  the  incom-  died  in  1843,  and  the  business  was  carried 
ing  fashion  for  fat  and  bold  faces.  He  on  by  Richard  and  his  son  until  1868.  Since 
died  in  1815,  and  his  foundry  came  to  an  the  retirement  of  Richard,  senior,  the 
end,  the  Caslons  taking  the  more  valuable  foundry  has  been  managed  by  his  sons 
portions  of  his  collections.  J.  M.  Richard  and  W.  M.  Richard. 

Vincent  Figgins  was  the  favored  appren-  Anthony   Bessemer,  the    inventor,   was 

tice  of  and  expected  successor  to  Joseph  a  founder    of  marked    ability,   in   Lon- 

Jackson,  but  he  was  prevented  from  being  don,  between    the    years   1821  and    1832. 


102 


Diamond,  or  ty-point,  solid 


In  his  twentieth  year,  Bessemer  had  distinguished 
himself  by  the  erection  at  Haarlem  in  Holland  of 
pumping  engines.  Before  he  was  twenty-five  years  of 
age  he  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Academic  at  Paris 
for  his  improvements  in  the  microscope.  He  cut  the 
diamond  type  used  by  Pickering  for  bis  diamond  edi- 
tions. The  foundry  was  dispersed  in  1832.  His  son 
Henry  was  a  master  of  the  mechanics  of  the  trade,  and 
patented  improvements  in  type-founding  before  he  was 
twenty-five  years  old. 

Richard  Austin,  a  noted  punch-cutter,  had  a  foundry 
in  London  before  1819.  George  Austin,  his  son,  suc- 
ceeded him  in  1824.  After  his  death  the  foundry  was 
owned  by  R.  M.  Wood,  who  in  partnership  with  S. 
and  T.  Sharwood  continued  the  business.  After  their 
death  the  business  ceased,  and  their  collection  was 
dispersed. 

Louis  John  Pouchee  was  a  type-founder  by  Didot's 
polymatype  method  at  London  in  1819,  but  was  un- 
successful. In  1830  he  abandoned  the  business,  and 
sold  at  auction  twenty  thousand  matrices,  punches, 
etc.,  and  thirty-five  tons  of  type. 

Abel  Buell  of  Killingworth,  Connecticut,  is  accred- 
ited, on  imperfect  evidence,  as  one  of  the  early  type- 
founders in  the  United  States.  His  regular  business 
was  that  of  a  whitesmith.  It  does  not  appear  that  he 
was  ever  in  a  type-foundry,  or  that  he  ever  received 
any  instruction  in  the  art,  but  in  1769  he  petitioned  the 
General  Assembly  of  his  State  for  money  to  establish  a 
type-foundry.  To  prove  his  ability  to  make  types,  he 
appended  to  his  petition  impressions  from  types  that  he 
said  he  had  made.  The  petition  was  granted,  but  his 


attempted  to  establish  a  type-foundry  at  1 
did  not  succeed.  It  is  possible  that  Buell  got 


did  not  succeed.  It  is  possible  that  Buell  |  ' 

knowledge  of  type- founding  from  Mitchelson. 

In  1772  Christopher  Sauer  (or  Sower,  as  he  spelled 
it  in  English),  second  of  the  name,  established  a  type- 
foundry  at  Germantown,  near  Philadelphia.  This 
foundry  was  managed  by  Justus  Fox,  who  seems  to 
have  been  expert  in  many  mechanical  arts.  In  1784 
Fox  purchased  the  foundry,  and  with  his  son  con- 
tinued the  business  until  his  death  in  1805.  In  1806 
Fox's  son  sold  the  foundry  to  Samuel  Sower,  son  of 
Christopher  Sauer,  who  had  previously  tried  to  estab- 
lish a  type-foundry  at  Baltimore,  which  attempt  was 
successfuUy  renewed  by  him  in  1815. 

Jacob  Bey,  a  German,  began  a  second  foundry  at 
Germantown  about  1774. 

Benjamin  Franklin  when  in  Paris  bought  from  P. 
S.  Fournier,  the  inventor  of  the  point  system  of  type- 
bodies,  a  complete  equipment  for  a  type-foundry  which 
he  intended  should  be  established  at  Philadelphia.  To 
this  end  he  had  his  grandson  B.  F.  Bache  receive  in- 
struction from  Fournier,  that  he  might  be  qualified  to 
manage  the  foundry.  Franklin  and  his  grandson  ar- 
rived in  Philadelphia  in  1775,  and  began  the  business 
of  type-founding,  but  they  were  not  successful.  Thomas 
says  that  they  did  not  or  could  not  make  good  types. 
The  foundry  was  neglected,  and  Bache  turned  his  atten- 
tion to  printing. 

John  Baine  (once  partner  with  Alexander  Wilson 
of  Glasgow,  and  his  grandson  began  a  type-foundry  in 
Philadelphia  in  the  year  1785.  They  were  the  first 
skilled  founders  in  the  city,  and  soon  had  full  employ- 
ment, one  of  their  most  important  orders  being  a  large 
font  of  types  for  an  encyclopedia  to  be  printed  by  Dob- 
son.  In  1790  the  elder  Baine  died.  Soon  after  the 
grandson  abandoned  the  business  and  removed  to  Au- 
gusta, Georgia,  where  be  died  in  1799. 

About  the  year  1775  Benjamin  Mecom,  a  printer 
and  nephew  of  Benjamin  Franklin,  attempted  to  make 
stereotype  plates.  He  cast  plates  for  a  number  of 
pages  of  the  New  Testament,  but  never  completed  the 
work,  and  finally  abandoned  the  undertaking.  m>- 


The  first  type-founder  in  New  York  was  Adam  G. 
Mappa.whohad  successfully  practised  type-making  ic 
Holland.  He  was  obliged  to  leave  his  country  for 
political  causes.  His  name  appears  in  the  New  York 
Directory  for  1792.  His  foundry  was  fairly  equipped 
with  Dutch  faces,  but  bis  stock  of  romans  was  poor 
He  was  not  successful.  In  1795  he  entered  the  service 
of  Binny  &  Ronaldson,  and  was  with  them  three  years. 
Some  of  his  faces  appear  in  their  book  of  specimens. 
He  then  went  into  the  service  of  the  Holland  Company. 
He  died  in  1828. 

The  first  founder  in  the  United  States  of  marked 
ability  was  Archibald  Binny  of  Scotland,  who  had 
made  types  in  a  small  way  at  Edinburgh.  In  1796,  in 
connection  with  James  Ronaldson,  he  established  a 
type-foundry  at  Philadelphia,  which  soon  took  the  lead 
of  the  other  foundries  in  that  city.  In  1811  he  patented 
a  valuable  improvement  to  the  mould  —  a  spring  lever 
which  gave  a  quick  return  motion  to  the  matrix,  and 
enabled  the  type-caster  to  make  more  types  with  less 
exertion.  He  made  a  machine  for  the  automatic  rub- 
bing of  type,  but  it  was  not  successful.  He  retired  in 
1819.  James  Ronaldson  and  Richard  Ronaldson  con- 
tinued the  business. 

In  1820  Lawrence  Johnson,  a  printer  and  native  of 


F.  Smith  for  the  purpose  of  buying  the  type-foundry 
of  Richard  Ronaldson.  Under  the  new  management 
the  operations  of  the  foundry  were  largely  extended. 
In  1843  George  F.  Smith  withdrew.  In  1845  John- 
son admitted  to  partnership  Thomas  MacKeUar,  John 
F.  Smith,  and  Richard  Smith,  who  had  been  trusted 
employees  of  this  house.  Peter  A.  Jordan  was  added 
afterward.  Before  his  death  in  1860  Johnson  sold  the 
foundry  to  his  junior  partners,  who  continued  the  busi- 
ness under  the  name  of  MacKeUar,  Smiths  &  Jordan, 
and  afterward  of  MacKeUar,  Smiths  &  Jordan  Com- 
pany, but  the  house  has  not  lost  its  old  name  of  the 
Johnson  Foundry.  John  F.  Smith  was  born  January 
20,  1815,  and  died  November  1,  1889.  Peter  A. 


The 


,  . 

first  book  stereotyped  in  the  United  States  was 
"  The  Larger  Catechism,"  of  142  pages.  It  bears  the 
imprint  of  J.  Watts  &  Co.,  New  York,  1813.  B.  &  J. 
Collins  and  Collins  &  Hannay  were  the  successors  of 
Watts,  who  returned  to  England  in  1815. 


died  September  8,  1894.  In  1892  the  MacKellar, 
Smiths  &  Jordan  Company  became  the  Philadelphia 
branch  of  the  American  Type  Founders  Company. 

In  1804  Elihu  White  and  William  Wing  of  Hart 
ford,  Connecticut,  undertook  to  make  types  without 

any  knowledge  whatever  of  the  construction  of  the  ap- 
proved form  of  type-mould.  After  repeated  failures 
they  were  obliged  to  send  one  of  their  workmen  to  the 
foundry  of  Binny  &  Ronaldson  of  Philadelphia,  but  he 
failed  to  get  the  knowledge  needed.  After  doing  a 
limited  business  in  Hartford,  White  separated  from 
Wing,  moved  his  foundry  to  New  York  in  1810,  and 
made  type  in  an  old  building  on  Beach  street.  Fore- 
seeing the  rapid  growth  of  cities  in  what  was  then  the 
Far  West,  he  established  branch  foundries  in  Buffalo 
and  Cincinnati.  Dying  in  1836,  the  business  was  con- 
tinued by  bis  son  John  T.  White.  He  was  succeeded 
by  Norman  White,  and  when  his  son  was  admitted  to 
partnership  the  firm-name  was  changed  to  Charles  T. 
White  &  Co.  Charles  T.  White  retired  in  1854,  after 
selling  the  type-foundry  to  his  employees,  A.  D.  Farmer, 
Andrew  Little,  and  John  Bentley,  who  carried  on 
business  under  the  name  of  Farmer,  Little  &  Co. 
Andrew  Little  and  John  Bentley  retired  in  1892. 
A.  D.  Farmer  died  in  1895.  The  business  is  now 
carried  on  by  William  Farmer,  under  the  name  of 
A.  D.  Farmer's  Son  Type  Founding  Co. 

In  1806  Robert  Lothian  of  Scotland  tried  and  failed 
to  establish  a  type-foundry  in  New  York.  His  son 
George  B.  Lothian,  who  had  been  taught  the  trade  nf 
stereotyping  in  the  stereotype  foundries  of  John  Watts 
of  New  York  and  B.  &  J.  Collins  of  Philadelphia,  and 
had  also  received  instruction  from  his  father  and  from 
Elihu  White  in  type-founding,  undertook  to  establish 
a  type-foundry  in  Pittsburgh,  Pennsylvania.  It  was 
an  unsuccessful  enterprise,  and  Lothian  returned  to 
New  York.  In  1822  he  undertook  to  make  type  for 


Diamond,  or  ty-point,  leaded         103 


the  firm  of  Harper  &  Brothers.  The  faces  of  Greek 
which  he  cut  for  the  Anthon  Classical  Series  were  very 
much  admired.  After  his  death  in  1851  the  Lothian 
foundry  was  sold  to  Peter  C.  Cortelyou  and  W.  H. 
Giffing.  When  Cortelyou  died  in  1875,  the  business  of 
this  foundry  ceased,  and  its  contents  were  dispersed. 

Edwin  and  Richard  Starr,  who  had  been  inducted 
in  the  trade  by  Elihu  White,  made  an  unsuccessful  at- 
tempt to  establish  a  type-foundry  in  Pittsburgh,  Penn- 
sylvania. Equally  unfortunate  in  other  attempts  in 
Albany  and  New  York,  they  were  afterward  employees 
in  the  foundries  of  New  York  and  Boston. 

James  Conner,  a  printer  of  New  York,  began  busi- 
ness as  a  stereotyper  in  that  city  in  the  year  1827.  He 
made  the  first  stereotype  edition  of  the  New  Testament. 
He  also  earned  a  good  reputation  as  the  publisher 
in  the  United  States  of  the  Bible  in  folio  form.  To 
the  business  of  stereotyping  he  soon  after  added  that  of 
type-founding,  in  which  he  was  remarkably  successful . 
By  the  aid  of  Edwin  Starr,  then  in  his  employ,  he  made 
the  electrotype  matrices  which  enabled  him  largely  to 
increase  the  faces  of  his  foundry .  The  Conner  Foundry 
was  the  first  in  this  country  to  introduce  light  faces. 
After  the  death  of  James  Conner  in  1861  the  foundry 
was  managed  by  his  sons  under  the  name  of  James 
Conner's  Sons.  William  Crawford  Conner,  the  eldest 
son,  was  born  in  New  York,  4th  of  December,  1821, 
and  died  there  on  the  26th  of  April,  1881.  James 
Madison  Conner  was  born  in  Boston  the  2d  of  Novem- 
ber, 1825,  and  died  in  New  York  on  the  14th  of  July, 
1887.  The  grandsons  of  the  founder,  Benjamin  F.  and 
Charles  S.,  managed  affairs  for  the  five  years  preceding 
1892,  when  they  merged  the  business  in  that  of  the 
American  Type  Founders  Company. 

William  Hagar,  who  had  been  an  employee  and  after- 
ward a  partner  in  the  firm  of  Charles  T.  White  &  Co., 
began  business  as  a  type-founder  in  New  York  about 
1840.  At  one  time  he  owned  the  patent  right  of  the 
Bruce  type-casting  machine,  and  devoted  much  of  his 
time  to  its  introduction  in  the  United  States  and  in 
foreign  countries.  He  died  in  1863,  leaving  the  foundry 
to  be  managed  by  his  sons,  who  afterward  abandoned 
the  business.  The  foundry  is  now  extinct. 

David  Bruce  (born  in  Scotland,  1770  :  died  in  New 
York,  1857)  was  the  head  of  a  type-founding  family 
which  has  done  much  for  the  improvement  of  the  arts 
of  stereotyping  and  type-making.  After  serving  an 
apprenticeship  to  printing  in  Edinburgh,  he  emigrated 
to  New  York  in  1793,  where  he  followed  his  trade  as  a 
pressman.  In  partnership  with  his  younger  brother 
George  Bruce,  he  began  business  in  New  York  as  a 

of  the  advantages  of  the  new  art  of  stereotyping,  David 
went  to  London  in  1812,  and  ineffectually  tried  to  get 
the  information  he  desired  from  the  inventor,  Earl 
Stanhope.  From  other  persons  he  gut,  as  he  thought, 
enough  of  hints  or  suggestions  to  warrant  him  begin- 
ning the  work.  On  his  return  to  New  York  he  added 
stereotyping  to  his  business,  in  which  he  made  a  marked 
success.  Three  of  the  most  valuable  aids  to  stereo- 
typing are  his  unquestioned  inventions  :  the  shaving 
machine,  which  enables  the  stereotyper  to  make  all 
plates  of  even  thickness ;  the  "patent-block  "  of  mahog- 


any, which  firmly  holds  the  stereotype  plate,  and  yet 
allows  its  ready  release  or  change  to  any  new  position  ; 
the  dove-tailed  packing  box  with  sliding  cover,  which 
secures  plates  from  injury  and  permits  rough  handling 
in  transportation.  In  1822  he  withdrew  from  business, 
but  continued  to  experiment  in  type-founding  with  use- 
ful results. 

great  attention  to  the  mechanics  of  type-casting.  The 
machines  of  Wing  &  White,  of  Starr  &  Sturdevant 
of  Boston,  and  William  M.  Johnson  of  Hempstead,  had 
been  tried  and  rejected  by  the  trade.  The  first  ma- 
chines of  Bruce  were  equally  unsatisfactory,  but  in 
1833  he  made  a  machine  which  was  generally  adopted 
and  had  no  worthy  rival  for  more  than  fifty  years.  He 
also  invented  a  type-rubbing  and  dressing  machine 
of  merit,  and  was  fairly  successful  as  a  punch-cutter. 
Many  meritorious  forms  of  script  and  ornamental 
letter  now  put  aside  as  old-fashioned  were  designed 
and  engraved  by  his  hand. 

George  Bruce  (born  in  Edinburgh,  in  1781  ;  died  in 
New  York,  1866)  emigrated  to  this  country  in  1796. 
After  serving  apprenticeship  as  a  printer  in  Philadel- 
phia and  working  as  a  compositor  in  New  York,  he  be- 
came the  business  partner  of  his  brother  David.  Their 

by  the  shapes  of  the  types  they  had  to  use.  Types  as 
then  made  had  no  shoulder.  The  beard  or  neck  sloped 
at  a  very  long  angle  from  face  to  shank.  The  plaster 
used  in  stereotyping  filled  these  sharp  angles,  from 
which  it  was  removed  with  difficulty.  Breakages 
which  defaced  the  mould  and  spoiled  the  cast  were 
frequent.  After  many  unsuccessful  efforts  to  induce 
type-founders  to  make  types  with  square  shoulders,  the 
brothers  undertook  to  make  types  for  themselves. 
They  began  with  the  materials  unsuccessfully  used  by 
the  brothers  Starr.  Their  first  specimen  book  is  dated 
1815.  George  Bruce  was  an  enthusiastic  and  inde- 
fatigable punch-cutter,  who  found  his  greatest  pleasure, 
even  at  advanced  age,  in  cutting  letters,  many  of  which 
are  still  admired  as  models  of  good  form.  His  services 
to  type- founding  by  his  system  of  geometrical  bodies  are 
related  in  this  book  in  the  chapter  on  the  Point  System. 
David  Wolfe  Bruce  (born  in  New  York,  in  1823), 
the  youngest  son  of  George,  succeeded  to  the  business  of 
George  Bruce,  which  he  continued,  in  partnership  with 
James  Lindsay,  under  the  name  of  George  Bruce's  Son 
&  Co.  Between  the  years  1868  and  1876  he  produced 
an  unusually  complete  series  of  "  penman  "  scripts, 
the  most  difficult  and  the  most  expensive  feat  of  type- 
founding  ever  undertaken  in  this  country.  David 
Wolfe  Bruce  retired  from  business  in  1890,  transfer- 
ring the  entire  foundry  to  his  employees  Henry  M. 
Hall,  Vilinder  B.  Munson,  and  Robert  Lindsay.  The 

in  1896.  The  business  is  now  conducted  by  Munson, 
under  the  name  of  V.  B.  Munson. 

James  Lindsay  was  born  in  Glasgow,  Scotland,  in 
1826,  and  was  taught  the  trade  in  the  foundry  of 
Alexander  Wilson  of  Edinburgh.  He  died  in  Brook- 
lyn on  the  20th  of  September,  1879.  He  was  a  thor- 
oughly educated  type-founder  and  a  punch-cutter  of 
admitted  ability. 


bought 
under 


104           Brilliant,  or  k-point,  solid 

Peter  C.   Cortelyou.  a  type-founder  of  New  York,  was  Foundry.      When  Hawks  retired  the  business  was   reor- 

born  in  New  Jersey  in  1800,  and  died  in  SUten   Island  ganized  as  an  incorporated  company. 

on  the  20th  of  September,   1875.     His  fint  knowledge  of  Marder,  Luse  4  Co.  established  a  type-foundry  in  San 

typo-founding  was  received  in  Pittsburgh  in  the  year  1820.  Francisco  in   1878,  of    which  N.   C.  Hawks  was  resident 

Returning  to  New  York,  he  became  an  employee  and  after-  partner  and  manager.       In  1884   the  foundry  was  .old  to 

ward  a  partner  of    George    Bruce.     At  his  death  he  was  Palmer  4  Rey. 

proprietor  of  the  plant  of  George  B.  Lothian.  John  Ryan   began  a  type-foundry  at   Halliday   street, 

Samuel  Nelson  Dickinson  (born  1801,  died  1848)  was  Baltimore,  in  1854.  In  1887  a  corporation  was  formed 
a  notable  type-founder  of  Boston.  He  was  taught  the  under  the  title  of  the  John  Ryan  Co.  John  Ryan,  the 
trade  of  a  printer  in  the  State  of  New  York,  but  after-  founder  of  the  business  and  fint  president  of  the  corn- 
ward  worked  as  a  compositor  in  the  Boston  Type  and  pany,  died  May  8,  1888.  It  is  now  a  branch  of  the  Ameri- 
Stereotype  Foundry.  In  1829  he  began  business  as  a  can  Type  Founders  Company. 

master  printer.     Unable  to  get  from  any  type-foundry  of  Holmes  4  Curtis  began  a  type-foundry  in   Devonshire 

his  city  the  types  his  taste  demanded,  he  undertook    to  street,    Boston,   in  1847.     Holmes  retired  in  1852.      E.  A. 

have  them  made.      The  style  known    as   the  Scotch-face  Curtis  continued  the  business  for  ten  or  twelve  years,  when 

was  modelled  by  him  -in  1837,   but  cut  and  cast   to    his  E.  Z.  Mitchell  was  admitted  as  partner.     Mitchell  died  in 

order  by  Alexander  Wilson  4  Son,  of  Edinburgh.      The  1880  ;   Curtis  died  in  1889.      The  foundry  was  continued 

matrices  imported  by  him  were  the  fint  types  of  the  Dickin-  by  Caroline  Curtis,   executrix,  under  the  name  of  Curtis 

son  Foundry  in  1839,  and  were  received  with  marked  favor.  4  Mitchell,  but  it  afterward  continued  under  the  name  of 

The  first  specimen-book  of  the  Dickinson  Foundry,  pub-  Palmer  4  Pruden. 

lished  in  1842,  shows  a  refined  taste  and  marked  ability,  Samuel  C.  Collins  and  Alexander  M'Leester  began  the 

the  foundry  passed  to  other  hands  and  for  some  years  did  Collins  died  July  13,   1883.      His  interest  was  bought  h; 

business  under  the  name  of  Phelps,  Dalton  4  Co.     It  is  Thomas     A.   Wiley.     In  Harch,    1887,    H'Leester  ' 

'  by  J.  W.  Phinney,  of  the  old  firm,  and  is  Wiley's   interest.        The  business  was  carried  on 

branch  of  the   American   Type   Founden  the    management  of   Eugene   H.    Munday  until   it   i 

Michael  Dalton,  of  the  old  firm  of  Phelps  4  Dalton,  and  Barnhart  Bros.  4  Spindler  (A.  M.  Barnhart,  Warren 
afterward  of  the  Dickinson  Type  Foundry  of  Boston,  was  Barnhart,  and  Charles  E.  Spindler)  began  type-founding 
born  in  Boston  the  23d  of  May,  1800,  and  died  there  on  the  at  105  East  Madison  street,  Chicago,  in  theyear  1868.  They 
24th  of  October,  1879.  He  practised  type-founding  for  made  four  branches  :  The  St.  Louis  Printen'  Supply  Corn- 
nearly  sixty  years.  pany  ;  The  Great  Western  Type  Foundry,  Omaha  ;  The 

Nathan  Lyman,  born   in  Coventry,  Conn.,  in  1790,  be-  Great  Western  Type  Foundry",  Kansas  City  ;   The  Minne- 

came  an  employee  of  Elihu  White,  of  Hartford,  in  1810.  sota    Type    Foundry  Company,    St.    Paul.       In    1891  the 

In  1829  he  was  connected  with  the  Albany  type-foundry  proprietors  were  :    A.    M.  Barnhart,  E.  Barnhart,    A.  S. 

of    R.    Starr  4  Co.     In  1835  he  removed  to  Buffalo,  and  Barnhart,    S.     G.    Stein,    Charles    E.     Spindler,     Charles 

there  began  a  business  afterward  known  as  the  Buffalo  Murray,    and   W.  H.  French.      Since  1891  branches  have 

Type  Foundry.     He  died  at  Buffalo  on  the  16th  of  Feb-  been  established  in  Seattle  and  San  Francisco, 

ruary,  1873.    The  Lyman  Foundry  is  now  a  branch  of  the  The  type-foundry  of  Harder,  Luse  4  Co.  of  Chicago  was 

American  Type  Founden  Company.  established  in  the  year  1855  by  Charles  T.  White  4  Co.  of 

A.  W.   Kinsley  4   Co.  were  type-founders  and  stereo-  New  York,  and  was  then  called  the  Chicago  Type  Foundry, 

typen  in  Albany  between  the  yean  1825  and  1831.     After  On  the  fint  day  of  October,  1863,  the  firm  was  changed  to 

1831  this  firm-name  disappears  from  the  Albany  Directory.  D.    Schofield  4  Co..  and  the  next  year  to  Schofield,   Mar- 
Richard  Starr  4  Co.  issued  a  specimen  book  of  the  Al-  der  4  Co.  (David  Schofield,  John  Marder,  Henry  Porter). 

bany  Type  Foundry  under  the  date  of  October  20,  1826.  In  Porter  sold  his    interest  to  John   Collins  and  retired  in 

the  circular-letter  it  is  claimed  that  ••  one  of  this  concern  1865.      In  1869  Collins  retired,  selling  his  interest  to  A.  P. 

has  been  engaged  in  letter-cutting  for  more  than  fifteen  Luse,  and  the  firm  became  Marder,  Luse  4  Co.      After  the 

yean,  and  that  he  has  cut  more  than  one-half  of  all  the  great  fire  of  1870,  Carl  Mueller  became  a  partner,  and  so 

letter  now  cast  by  all  the  American  Founders."       They  remained  until  July,  1883,  when  he  sold  his  interest    to 

offer  nonpareil  at  one  dollar  and  twenty  cents  a  pound,  Marder  4  Luse.     In  1880  Schofield  sold  his  interest  to  the 

brevier  at  seventy  cents,  and  other  sizes  at  proportionate  remaining  partners.    In  July,  1883,  the  business  was  reor- 

rates.    In  1830-31  the  business  of  this  foundry  was  carried  ganized  as  a  stock   company,  of  which  John  Marder  was 

on  under  the  name  of  Starr,  Little  4  Co.     In  1833  Starr  president,    A.    P.    Luse,     vice-president,    and    John    W. 

and  Little  had  separated,  each  conducting  a  separate  busi-  Marder,  secretary.      Collins    died    in    1873  ;     Mueller  in 

ness.    Starr's  name  disappears  from  the  Directory  in  1840,  1885  ;  Luse  in  1891.     It  is  now  a  branch  of  the  American 

»nd  Little's  in  1846.  Type  Founders  Company. 

O.  R.  Van  Benthuysen  (born  1786,  died  1845>  who  had  The  Central  Type  Foundry  was  established  at  St.  Louis, 

been  apprenticed  to  a  bookbinder,  associated  with  Robert  Missouri,  in   the   year  1875,  by    C.    Schraubstadter    and 

Packard  in  1813,  and  they  began  business  as  printen.  About  J.  A.  St.  John,  formerly  of  the    Boston  Type  Foundry. 

1832  they  added  the  new  branch  of  stereotyping,  and  soon  In  1892  St.  John  retired,  and  the  business  was  sold  to  the 

American  Type  Founden  Company. 

The  type-foundry  of  John  F.  Reton  4  Son  at  Kansas 
City,  Missouri,  wa.  there  established  in  the  year  1872  by 

John  Reton.     His   son  John  B.  Reton  was  admitted   as 

proprieton  of  the   ••  Albany  Argus  "  and  State  printen.  partner  in   1882.      It  is  now  a  branch  of   the    American 

onlyf  orThe1  needs  of  that^use^by  the's'uccess^Charles  'The  ty^e-fo^ndr^of  L^'wis  Pelouze  4  Co.,  Philadelphia, 

Van  Benthuysen.  was  there  established  in  the  year  1841  by  Edward  Pelouze  ; 

James  Fosdick  Starr.Ja  stereotyper  in  New  York,  Boston,  in  the  same  year  the  foundry  was  sold  to  Lewis  Pelouze . 

and  Philadelphia,  between  1R24  and  1832,  died  in  Illinois  In  1875  the   firm-name  was  changed    to  Lewis  Pelouze  4 

in  1833.    Richard  (born  1785,  died  1849)  was  a  type-founder  Co.,   by  sale   of    interest    to   H.    L.    Hartshorn.       Lewis 

for  nearly  fifty  years.  Henry  S.,  twin  brother  of  Richard,  Pelouze  died  in  1876,   and   H.  L.  Hartshorn  became  sole 

was  a  punch-cutter.     The  date  of  his  death  is  unknown,  owner.    In  1876  William  H.  Hartshorn  became  a  partner. 

of  TbUitay,y°diede in  "im*'   In^rtnenhip  'with'his's^'n  1880  W.  M.  HartehonTretired*;  Tn  1883  J*  K*  Tetfow  re" 

Thomas  W.  he  carried  on  the  business  of  type-founding  in  tired,  leaving  H.  L.  Hartshorn  sole  proprietor.     Between 

Baltimore  and  Philadelphia  under  the  name  of  E.  Starr  4  the  years  1865  and  1875  H.  L.  Hartshorn  managed  the  busi- 

Son.     This  foundry  was  afterward  sold  to  Collins  4  M'Lee-  ness  of  Lewis  Pelouze  4  Co.,  at  Richmond,  Virginia.    It 

ster  of  Philadelphia.  is  now  a  branch  of  the  American  Type  Founden  Company. 

Andrew    Foreman,  previously  of  the    Brace    Foundry  The  Keystone  Type  Foundry  was  established  at  Phila- 

of  New  York,  was   engaged  by  William  Faulkner  to  es-  delphia  in  1888  by  the  Mather  Manufacturing  Company, 

tablish  a  type-foundry  in  San  Francisco,  which  he  did  in  who  continue  as  proprietors.     The  manager  is  Walter  J. 

1866,    building  the  fint   machines  and  casting  the  fint  McKee. 

types  made  in  California.    This  foundry,  aided  by  Conner's  The  Cleveland  Type  Foundry  was  established  at  Cleve- 

Sons  of  New  York,  did  business  under  the  name  of  Faulk-  land,  Ohio,  in  the  year   1879,  by  tl.e   H.  H.  Thorp  Manu- 

:r  4  Son  until  1880,  when  it  was  sold  to  Painter  4  Co.  facturing  Company  (H.  H.  Thorp,  president ;  F.  B.  Berry, 


and  incorporated  with  their  foundry.  Then  Foreman  es-  secretary  ;  L.  C.  Hickmau,  treasurer  ;  and  F.  H.  Bultman, 

tablished  a  new  foundry,  which  now  does  business  under  superintendent).  It  is  now  a  branch  of  the  American 

the  name  of  Foreman  4  Son.  Type  Founden  Company. 

Painter  4  Son  established  a  type-foundry  at  San  Fran-  The  Union  Type  Foundry  of  Chicago  was  established  in 

cisco  in  1868,  with  machines  and  moulds  from  the  John-  that  city  in  the  year  1872  under  the  name  of  the  Mechanics' 

son  Foundry  of  Philadelphia.  J.  B.  Painter  died  in  1883.  Type  Foundry,  by  former  employee,  of  Harder.Luse  4  Co.. 

The  business  closed  in  18&,  the  plant  going  to  the  Ameri-  anrcontrolled  by  different  managen  until  1884.  when  it 

can  Type  Founden  Company.  was  incorporated  under  its  present  name.  In  1888  it 

Hawks  4  Shattuck  began  to  make  type  in  San  Fran-  bought  out  the  Manhattan  Type  Foundry  of  New  York, 

cisco  in  1893,  under  the  name  of  the  Pacific  States  Type  taking  all  their  material.  It  is  now  managed  under 


Brilliant,  or  k-point,  leaded  105 

Company.  came  to  this  country  in  1849.     For  ten  years  after  he  was 

The  Cincinnati  Type  Foundry  was  established  in    that  in  the  employ  of  type-founders  of  New  York  and  Phila- 

city  in  the  year  1817  by  Oliver   Wells,  Horace  Wells,  and  delphia.    In  1860  he  began  business  a*  a  master  type- 

1830  it  was  made   a  stock  company.     Its  managers  since  In  1872  the  New  York  Printing  Co.  was  making  text- 

1861   have  been    Charles   Wells,    Henry    Earth,    and  W.  types  for  its  own  use,  but  this  branch  of  its  business  is  not 

F.  Hunt.     Charles  Wells  died  in  1885.     It  is  now  a  branch  done  now  by  its  successors.       George  Munro  is  the  only 

of  the  American  Type  Founders  Company.  printer  of  New  York  who  undertakes  to  make  types  for 

John  6.  Mengel  4  Co.  began  a  type-founding  business  at  his  own  needs. 

Baltimore  in  1881.      John  G.    Mengel,    Jr.,    had  been  a  In  1856  8.  R.  Walker  and  H.  L.  Pelouze  of  New  York 

partner  in  February,  1883.     This  foundry  is  now  a  branch  casting.     In  1858  they  established  a  small  type-foundry 

of  the  American  Type  Founders  Company.  in  Richmond,    Virginia.     In    1860  the   partnership  was 

The  St.  Louis  Type  Foundry  was  established  at  St.  Louis  dissolved,  Pelouze  taking  the  Richmond  foundry.     After 

in  1840  by   George  Charles    of  the    Johnson  Foundry  of  Walker's  death  in  1866,   the  business  was  continued  by 

Philadelphia.     In  1844  he  sold  it  to  A.  P.  Ladew  of  Albany,  his  son  Samuel  R.  Walker,  and  R.  F.  Cole.       Theodore 

N.  Y.      In  1847  Ladew  sold  one-half   to  T.  F.  Purcell  of  Tuthill  and  P.  H.  Bresnan  were   subsequent    partners. 

Louisville.      In  1855  Purcell  sold  his  interest  to  V.  J.  Peers  Since  1883  the  firm-name  has   been  Walker  &  Bresnan. 

of  St.  Louis.    In  1859  Ladew  became  sole  owner,  but  in  1861  Robert  and  John    Lindsay  (brothers  to  James)   began 

he  sold  out  to  the  Cincinnati  Type  Foundry.      In  1861  the  type-founding  in  New  York   in   1852.     Another  brother, 

business  was  incorporated  as  the  St.  Louis  Type  Foundry.  Alexander  W.,  became  a  third   partner  in    1856,  in  the 

It  is  now  a  branch  of  the  American  Type  Founders  Com-  new  firm   of  R.  &  J.  *  A.  W.  Lindsay.     Alexander  W. 

pany.  subsequently  established  a  separate  business  which  was 

In  1856  Lawrence  Johnson  of  Philadelphia  established  continued  for  many  years.     In  1892  he  merged  it  in  the 

a  branch  foundry  in  Cincinnati,  and  put  it  under  the  man-  American  Type  Founders  Company.      The  older  Lindsay 

agement  of  Robert  Allison,   an  employee,  who  afterward  Type  Foundry  afterward  continued  the  business  under  the 

became  its  owner.     It  was  then  known  as  the  Franklin  name  of  Robert  Lindsay  4  Co. 

Type  Foundry.      In  1868  M.  Smith  became  a  partner.     In  In  the  autumn  of  1892  the  American  Type   Founder* 

1892  it  was  merged  in  the  American  Type  Fonnders  Com-  Company  was  established,  with  a  capital  stock  of   nine 

pany,  and  is  now  known  as  Branch  10  of  that  concern.  million  dollars,  which  was  afterward  reduced. 

specimen  book  of  1820  announces  Timothy  Bedlington  and  MacKellar,  Smiths  4  Jordan  Co.,  Philadelphia. 

Charles  Ewer  as  proprietors,  who  offer  to  sell  nonpareil  Collins  4  M'Leester,  Philadelphia. 

at  one  dollar  and  forty  cents  and  pearl  at  one  dollar  and  Pelonze  &  Co.,  Philadelphia. 

seventy-five  cents  per  pound.     Between  1830  and  1838  the  James  Conner's  Sons,  New  York. 

Boston  Type  Foundry  gave  much  encouragement  to  David  P.  H.  Heinrich,  New  York. 

Bruce,  Jr.,  who  was  then  experimenting  with  his  type-  A.  W,  Lindsay,  New  York. 

easting  machine.     Before  it  was  organized  as  a  corporation  Charles  J.  Gary  4  Co.,  Baltimore. 

in  1840,  James  Conner  had  been  the  manager  of  the  stereo-  The  John  Ryan  Co.,  Baltimore. 

typing  and  Michael  Dalton  of  the  type-founding  depart-  J.  G.  Mengel  Sc  Co.,  Baltimore. 

ments.     Its  first  president  was  C.  C.  Little,  and  its  first  Hooper,  Wilson  4  Co.,  Baltimore. 

agent  John  Gorham  Rogers.     Sewall  Phelps  was  then  at  Boston  Type  Foundry,  Boston. 

the  head  of  the  stereotype  foundry.      James   Shute  sue-  Phelps,  Dalton  4  Co.,  Boston. 

eeeded  J.  G.  Rogers.     About  1849   the   stereotype  branch  Lyman  4  Son,  Buffalo. 

of  the  business  was  sold.      Soon  after  the  type-foundry  Allison  4  Smith,  Cincinnati. 

was  sold  to  John  K.  Rogers,  David  Watson,  and  Edward  Cincinnati  Type  Foundry,  Cincinnati. 

Pelouze,  who   did  business  under  the  name  of  John  K.  Cleveland  Type  Foundry,  Cleveland. 

Rogers  4  Co.     After  Pelouze  retired  in  1871  the  business  Marder,   Luse  4  Co.,  Chicago. 

was  carried    on    under    the   name    of    the     Boston    Type  Union  Type  Foundry,  Chicago. 

Foundry.     Soon    after  a  branch    at    St.  Louis  was  estab-  Benton,  Waldo  4  Co.,  Milwaukee. 

lished  under  the  charge   of  two   employees  of  the  house,  Central  Type  Foundry,   St.  Louis. 

James  A.  St.  John  and  Carl  Schraubstadter.       John  K.  St.  Louis  Type  Foundry,  St.  Louis. 

Rogers'  interest  was  bought   by  St.    John    and   Schraub-  Kansas  City  Type  Foundry,  Kansas  City. 

sUdter,  who  afterward  sold  the  business  to  the  American  Palmer  4  Rey,  San  Francisco. 

Type  Founders  Company.  In  the  prospectus  of  the  company  it  was  claimed  that 

John  Kimball  Rogers,  once  a  prominent  member  of  the  the  above-named  twenty-three  companies  and  firms  man- 
Boston  Type  Foundry,  was  born  at  Gloucester,  Mass.,  on  ufacture  and  sell  about  eighty-five    per  cent,  of  the    en- 
the  31st  of  January,  1821.     He  died   at  Longwood,  Mass.,  tire  output  of  type  in  the  United  States. 
on  the  27th  of  January,   1888.  The  principal  foundries  that  declined  to  be  merged  in 

The  type-foundry  of  C.  J.  C'ary  4  Co.  of  Baltimore  was  the  company  were  : 

here   established  in  1804   by  Robert  Sower.      Its    subse-  Farmer,  Little  4  Co.,  New  York, 

quent  proprietors  were  :  R.  B.   Spaulding,  1818  ;  F.  Lucas,  George  Bruce' s  Son  4  Co.,  New  York. 

Jr.     1832  ;  Lucas  Brothers,   1854  ;  Henry  Lucas,  1860  ;    F.  Bamhart  Bros.  4  Spindler,  Chicago. 

H.    Lucas,  1872  :    Henry  L.  Pelouze    4   Son,    1879  ;  C.  J.  The  types  most  used  on  daily  newspapers  are  now  (1899) 

Cary  4  Co.,  1883.  made  by  many  of  the  offices  on  the  linotype  machine.    The 

The  Washington  Type  Foundry  was  established  in  1869  as  diversion  of  this  branch  of  type-founding  to  the  new  pro- 

a  branch  of  the  Richmond  Type  Foundry,  then  under  the  cess  has  not  apparently  affected  the  output  of  the  American 

management  of  H.  L.  Pelouse.    It  was  afterward  managed  Type  Founders  Company,  who  still  continue  to  make  book 

by  different  members  of  the  Pelouze  family.      It  is  now  and  job  types  by  the  older  method  for  a  steadily  increasing 

managed  by  J.  H.  Mills  4  Co  demand. 


106  Leaded  and  Solid  Matter 

In  the  preceding  illustrations,  twenty-two  dis- 
tinct sizes  are  shown,  ranging  from  the  large 
Keaineed  s^ze  °^  six-line  pica,  which  is  nearly  one 
for  many  inch  in  height  of  body,  and  the  small  size 
of  brilliant,  which  is  about  one-twentieth 
of  an  inch  in  height  of  body.  Between  the  sizes 
of  nonpareil  and  pica,  the  difference  of  each  body 
from  its  proximate  body  is  about  one  seventy- 
second  part  of  an  inch;  between  all  proximate 
sizes  below  nonpareil,  about  one  one-hundred-and- 
forty-fourth  of  an  inch.  The  inexpert  may  say 
that  there  are  too  many  bodies,  but  there  is  need 
for  all  of  them.  The  early  printers,  who  printed 
books  with  half  the  number,  worked  to  great  dis- 
advantage. The  so-called  irregular  sizes,  which  are 
almost  as  common  as  the  regular,  enable  modern 
publishers  to  make  books  and  newspapers  to  suit 
every  taste.  A  book  in  small-pica  costs  less  than 
one  in  pica,  yet  it  is  equally  readable.  The  adver- 
tisements in  nonpareil  that  overcrowd  a  news- 
paper are  quite  as  acceptable  when  set  in  agate, 
even  if  they  occupy  a  smaller  space. 

In  the  illustrations  of  sizes  shown  on  pages 
76  to  105,  the  types  of  the  facing  pages  are  pre- 
Leaded  cisely  the  same.  The  difference  in  their 
and  solid  appearance  is  produced  by  leading.  The 

matter          ,.**  J   , 

lines  01  the  even  page  are  "  solid,"  or  as 
close  together  as  they  can  be  brought ;  the  lines  of 
the  odd  page  have  been  separated  by  the  insertion 
of  thin  pieces  of  soft  type-metal  known  as  leads. 


Leads  of  Different  Forms  107 

These  leads,  like  the  quadrats  and  spaces  which 
separate  words,  are  not  quite  type-high  j  they  do 
not  appear  in  print,  not  being  touched  by  the  ink- 
ing rollers.  Leading  between  lines  of  composed 
matter  makes  print  more  readable,  by  giving  more 
white  space  in  a  place  where  relief  is  of  advantage. 
The  selection  of  the  thickness  of  the  lead  is  usually 
a  matter  of  taste,  but  to  some  extent  it  should  be 
determined  by  the  face  of  type  with  which  the  lead 
is  used.  Large  types  need  thick  leads ;  small  types, 
thin  leads. 

Thickness  of  a  three-to-pica  lead. 

Thickness  of  a  four-to-pica  lead. 

Thickness  of  a  six-to-pica  lead. 
Thickness  of  an  eight-to-pica  lead. 

Thickness  of  a  ten-to-pica  lead. 
Thickness  of  a  twelve-to-pica  lead. 

Two  forms  of  leads  are  made :  high  leads,  about 
seven-eighths  of  an  inch  high,  which  reach  to  the 
shoulder  of  the  type,  and  are  employed  Leadsmade 
only  in  fine  stereotype  or  electrotype  of  different 
work ;  low  leads,  about  three-fourths  of  forms 
an  inch  high,  or  of  the  same  height  as  ordinary 
quadrats,  which  are  used  only  in  letter-press  work. 
They  are  usually  cast  in  a  mould,  in  strips  about 
eleven  inches  long,  which  are  afterward  cut  to 


108       Book-types  not  of  Uniform  Face 

prescribed  lengths.  Some  leads  are  made  by  roll- 
ing machines.  In  many  daily  newspaper  offices 
the  strips,  which  are  there  subject  to  harder  usage 
than  in  book  offices,  are  made  of  rolled  brass. 
These  are  called  brass-leads  or  brasses  ;  the  latter 
is  better.  The  size  most  used  is  that  known  as  six- 
to-pica,  but  founders  furnish  them  of  any  thickness 
from  three-  to  fourteen-to-pica.  The  thickness  of 
two-to-pica  is  known  as  a  nonpareil  slug,  and  all 
other  thicknesses  that  correspond  with  the  regular 
bodies  of  type  are  known  by  the  names  of  their 
bodies,  as  pica  slugs  or  brevier  slugs.  Slugs  are 
often  used  by  book  printers  as  the  foot-lines  to 
pages,  and  also  to  separate  the  columns  of  pages. 
Old-style  faces  had  to  be  selected  as  the  illus- 
trations of  sizes,  for  it  was  not  possible  to  show 
Modem  book-  a  harmonious  series  of  faces  in  roman 
types  seldom  of  modern  cut.  Many  American  foun- 
cut  m  series  can  ^Qw  ^n  gQ^^  antique,  or 


other  forms  of  display  letter,  a  harmonious  series 
from  pearl  to  six-line  pica,  but  they  cannot  show 
this  harmony  in  any  complete  series  of  roman 
book-letter.  The  smaller  sizes  made  by  the  type- 
founders are  extra  wide,  or  narrow,  or  bold,  or 
light,  to  suit  the  needs  of  their  largest  customers, 
the  publishers  of  newspapers.  The  larger  sizes, 
above  great-primer,  are  usually  made  extra  bold 
and  black,  to  suit  the  needs  of  job  printers.  Sizes 
larger  than  great-primer  are  so  rarely  used  for 
book-work,  and  yet  so  largely  used  for  posting- 


Book-faces  not  Eegularly  Graded     109 

bills,  that  founders  are  led  to  make  only  those 
faces  that  are  most  serviceable  for  job  printing. 

The  illustrations  of  the  sizes  of  type  set  forth 
on  pages  76  to  105  are  also  intended  to  exhibit 
the  number  of  words  and  the  number  Proportioll8 
of  ems  that  fill  the  fixed  space  of  one  of  different 
full  page  of  this  size,  or  of  15  square  8izes  of  type 
inches.  They  show  the  loss  in  lines  and  words 
that  follows  the  insertion  of  leads,  and  the  gain 
in  words  made  by  the  change  from  a  larger  to  a 
smaller  type.  Yet  they  show  but  imperfectly  the 
relative  proportions  of  type-bodies,  and  the  exact 
relations  of  the  bodies  to  their  faces.  The  sizes 
meridian  and  paragon  were  omitted,  because  suit- 
able faces  of  book-types  are  not  made  upon  these 
bodies.  The  sizes  from  double  small -pica  to  five- 
line  pica,  inclusive,  are  from  the  old  foundry  of 
MacKellar,  Smiths  &  Jordan  Co.,  and  are  mainly 
true  old-styles  of  Caslon  design.  The  sizes  english 
to  nonpareil,  inclusive,  are  from  the  old  foundry  of 
George  Bruce's  Son  &  Co.,  and  are  all  old-styles 
of  modern  design.  The  illustrations  of  Columbian, 
agate,  diamond,  and  brilliant,  from  several  foun- 
dries, are  also  of  modern  design,  but  are  destitute 
of  all  old-style  features.  Coming  from  different 
foundries,  cut  by  different  punch-cutters  at  widely 
distant  periods,  and  cast  upon  bodies  graded  by 
different  systems,  these  illustrations  of  sizes  do 
not  show  relative  proportions  with  a  becoming 
precision.  The  Columbian  seems  larger  than  the 


110  Difficult  to  Identify  Bodies  by  Faces 

great-primer;  the  agate  seems  to  be  larger  than 
the  nonpareil  ;  the  bourgeois  does  not  appear,  as  it 
irregular!-  should,  the  true  intermediate  of  brevier 
ties  m  faces  and  long-primer.  These  irregularities  of 
of  type  f  ace  are  f/kg  resu;[ts  of  attempts  to  make 
for  printers  special  faces  suiting  special  purposes, 
for  one  size  only,  and  not  for  a  full  series  of  sizes. 
Founders  have  been  persuaded  to  cut  mongrels 
of  new  forms  :  as  large  a  face  as  can  be  got  upon 
the  body,  or  nearly  as  large  as  the  next  larger 
size,  or  but  very  little  larger  than  the  next  smaller 
size,  or  faces  that  are  wider  or  thinner  than  the 
standard  forms.  Types  so  made,  and  there  are  too 
many  of  them,  break  the  regularity  of  a  graded 
series  of  sizes.  The  agate  with  shortened  ascend- 
ers and  descenders  is  really  of  a  larger  face  than 
the  nonpareil,  but  is  called  agate  because  it  is  on 
an  agate  body.  The  bourgeois  may  be  nearly  as 
large  as  a  long-primer,  but  it  is  called  bourgeois 
The  body  because  it  is  on  a  bourgeois  body.  The 
determines  body  determines  the  name.  As  the  ex- 

the  name  .  jg   no^   geen  |n  the 


print,  it  is  often  difficult,  even  for  the  expert,  to 
accurately  name  the  body  of  a  type  from  a  hasty 
inspection  of  its  face. 

The  body  of  the  text-type  used  in  any  piece  of 
print  that  has  been  "  set  solid  "  or  without  leads, 
can  be  approximately  ascertained  by  measuring  it 
with  a  rule.  One  inch  should  cover  6  lines  of  pica, 
7  of  small-pica,  8  of  long-primer,  9  of  bourgeois, 


C Jiang es  Made  by  Use  of  Leads       111 

10  of  brevier,  11  of  minion,  12  of  nonpareil,  14  of 
agate,  16  of  pearl,  and  18  of  diamond.1  For  longer 
measurements  than  one  inch,  a  type-mea-  Tofin(i 
surer  should  be  used.  The  body  of  solid  the  size 
type  can  also  be  determined  by  finding  a  { 
quadrat  which  will  completely  span  the  distance 
between  the  foot  of  the  first  line  and  the  foot  of 
the  second  one.  When  the  lines  of  type  are  leaded, 
the  identification  of  an  unknown  body  is  more 
difficult.  The  width  of  the  lead  and  of  the  space 
between  lines  cannot  be  measured  or  safely  con- 
jectured. The  only  test  is  to  put  an  em  quadrat 
of  the  supposed  body  over  a  full-bodied  letter  like 
Q  or  j.  If  this  quadrat  touches  or  nearly  touches 
the  letter  at  its  extreme  points,  it  should  be,  and 
probably  is,  of  the  same  body. 

gyp  gyp 

d     1     b  d     1     b 

Solid.  Leaded. 

Types  are  sometimes  leaded  with  very  thin 
leads,  like  twelve-  fourteen-  or  sixteen-to-pica,  for 
which  all  these  methods  of  measurement  will  be 
found  unsatisfactory.  With  the  ordinary  thickness 
of  six-to-pica,  the  detection  of  leading  is  not  so 
uncertain.  If  there  is  a  decided  space  of  white  be- 
tween the  approaching  points  of  ascending  and 
descending  letters,  the  type  is  probably  leaded.2 

1  These  figures  can  be  safely  2  Reservation  has  to  be  made 

used  only  in  a  measurement  of  for  the  bastard  bodies,  to  which 

one  inch.    Consult  tables  in  the  these  observations  do  not  apply; 

chapter  on  the  Point  System,  but  bastard  bodies  are  rare. 


112      Relations  of  Types  to  Each  Other. 

The  relations  which  each  body  of  the  book-types 
shown  in  the  preceding  pages  bears  to  other  bodies 
in  solid  composition  are  arithmetically  shown  by 
the  figures  in  the  following  table : 


Sizes  of  Type. 

Cms 
to  the 
alpha- 
bet.i 

Ems 
to  the 
line. 

Lines 
in  the 
page, 
solid. 

Ems 
in  the 
page. 

Words 
in  a 
page, 
solid. 

Great-primer 

t 

12 

12* 

20 

250 

105 

Columbian    . 

13* 

14 

23 

322 

122 

English  .  .  . 

12| 

16 

26 

416 

170 

Pica  

12* 

18 

29 

532 

209 

Small-pica    . 

12* 

20 

32 

640 

249 

Long-primer 

12 

22  \ 

36 

810 

319 

Bourgeois  .  . 

12* 

25 

40 

1000 

383 

Brevier.  .  .  . 

13 

28 

46 

1288 

490 

Minion  .... 

13f 

31i 

51 

1607 

588 

Nonpareil  .  . 

14 

36 

57 

2052 

734 

Agate    .... 

16 

40 

65 

2400 

852 

Pearl  

15J 

45 

72 

3240 

1015 

Diamond.  .  . 

13f 

50 

81 

4050 

1391 

Brilliant  .           15 

i 

56 

92 

5152 

1763 

1  The  figures  in  this  column  em-quadrats   of   its  own  body 

show  the    relative    fatness    or  that  equal  the    length   of  the 

leanness  of  each  face  of  type  twenty- six  lower-case  letters  of 

by  specifying  the   number  of  the  alphabet.     See  page  115. 


The  Measurement  of  Composition      113 

An  em  of  any  type  is  the  square  body  of  that 
type.  As  it  is  impracticable  to  count  all  the  bits  of 
metal  in  a  page,  the  em  is  made  a  unit  Tlie  em  quad_ 
of  superficial  measure.  The  space  that  rat  is  the  unit 
can  be  covered  by  one  thousand  em-  ofmeasure 
quadrats  is  reckoned  as  one  thousand  ems.  This 
method  of  measuring  is  never  changed  for  open 
or  leaded  composition.  One  thousand  ems  may 
contain  three  thousand  bits  of  metal  if  the  matter 
be  solid,  or  only  one  thousand  bits  if  the  matter 
be  leaded  and  full  of  quadrats ;  but  in  either  case 
the  composition  is  computed  as  one  thousand  ems. 

In  the  measurement  of  the  width  of  a  line  of 
composition  no  account  is  taken  of  any  smaller 
fraction  than  the  en  quadrat.  If  the  Rulesasto 
width  of  the  line  exceeds  even  ems  by  fractions  of 
one  third  of  an  em,  this  excess  of  one 
third  is  not  counted;  if  it  is  an  en,  or  but  little 
less,  it  is  counted  as  an  en ;  if  it  exceeds  an  en, 
the  excess  is  counted  as  a  full  em. 

The  em  quadrat  is  also  made  the  unit  for  mea- 
suring the  fatness  or  leanness  of  any  face  of  type, 
which  fatness  or  leanness  is  determined  by  the 
number  of  ems  that  equal  in  length  the  alphabet 
of  twenty-six  lower-case  letters. 

The  widths  of  different  faces  are  defined  by  the 
number  of  ems  to  the  lower-case  alphabets  and  by 
the  words  standard,  lean,  condensed,  and  extra 
condensed,  to  specify  their  progressive  decrease 
in  width ;  and  by  the  words  fat,  broad-faced,  ex- 
15 


114          The  Measurements  of  Faces 

panded,  and  extended,  to  specify  their  progressive 
increase  in  width. 

The  standard  of  width  is  variable.  The  Inter- 
national Typographical  Union  has  determined  the 
proper  width  or  standard  of  pica,  small-pica,  long- 
primer,  and  bourgeois  at  13  ems ;  of  brevier  and 
minion  at  14  ems;  nonpareil  15  ems;  agate  16 
ems ;  pearl  17  ems ;  diamond  18  ems.  Faces  that 
fall  below  these  standards  are  unfairly  measured 
by  the  em  quadrat  of  the  next  smaller  body. 

M    M    M    I 

Standard.  Lean.  Condensed.    Extra  condensed. 

M  M  M 


Standard.  Fat.  Broad-faced.  Expanded. 

A  lean  letter  has  an  alphabet  of  lower-case  let- 
ters that  is  below  the  standards  here  given.  The 
bourgeois  of  13  ems  is  up  to  the  standard;  the 
brevier  of  13  ems  is  below  the  standard. 

Condensed  letters  are  now  rarely  used  for  the 
text-types  of  books  or  newspapers.  There  is  no 
rule  that  limits  the  use  of  the  word  condensed  to 
any  specified  width,  but  it  may  be  fairly  applied 
to  any  face  of  which  the  lower-case  alphabet 
measures  10  or  11  ems  of  its  bodv. 


Illustrations  of  the  Widths  of  Faces  115 

,  Ems. 

Nonpareil .  [abcdefgliijklmnopqretuvwxyzj 16^ 

abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyJ         14 

Lean     .     .    abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 134 

Fat  .    .    .  LbcdefgMjklmnopqrstiivwxyd    ....  19| 

Expanded.  |abcd.efgliijklinnopqrstnvAvxyz|       .  23£ 

Minion   .    .  Lbcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz| 14| 

|abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz|        13f 

Brevier  .   .  |abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz| 14| 

|abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz| 13 

Lean    .    .  Jabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz| 11^ 

condensed  ]abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz| 11 


Bourgeois  .  |abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz|    ....  13f 

|abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz| 12£ 

Long-prim.  |abedefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz|      .    .  I3i 

|abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz|    ....  12 

condensed  |abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz| 10^- 

smau-pica  |abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz|  •  i3f 

|abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz|     .    .  12^ 

pica  .  .  .  labcdefgMjklmnopqrstuvwxyzj  isi 

|abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz|  .  12^ 


116       The  Standards  of  Measurement 


An  extra  condensed  letter  has  an  alphabet  less 
than  10  ems  in  width. 

A  fat  letter  has  an  alphabet  but  a  trifle  wider 
than  that  of  its  standard.1 

A  broad-faced  letter  has  an  alphabet  fifteen  or 
twenty  per  cent,  wider  than  that  of  its  standard. 

An  expanded  letter  has  an  alphabet  thirty  or 
forty  per  cent,  wider  than  that  of  its  standard. 

An  extended  letter  has  an  alphabet  fifty  per 
cent,  (or  more)  wider  than  that  of  its  standard. 


1  The  standard  of  width  is  of 
recent  introduction.  The  "  Lon- 
don Scale  of  Prices  "  of  1810  and 
the  "  New  York  Scale  of  Prices" 
of  1833  gave  no  rules  as  to  a 
standard,  even  when  lean  types 
were  in  frequent  use.  The  first 
American  rule  (probably  1851) 
makes  the  standard  12  ems  for 
aU  bodies.  About  1864  higher 
standards  were  determined  on 
for  the  smaller  bodies.  In  1886 
the  standards  of  all  bodies  were 
again  increased. 

The  Caslon  old-style  faces, 
marked  lean  in  the  previous  il- 
lustration, fairly  represent  the 
average  width  of  the  lower-case 
letters  of  the  last  century.  The 
rounder  and  wider  faces  that 
were  subsequently  introduced 
by  Thome,  Jackson,  Bodoni,  and 
Didot  did  not  prove  a  permanent 
fashion.  They  were  supplanted 
by  the  Scotch-face,  and  other 
cuts  of  letter  decidedly  below 
the  present  standards,  and  these 
leaner  faces  were  preferred  for 


newspapers  as  well  as  for  books. 
The  modern  broad-faces  now 
made  for  newspapers  were  spar- 
ingly made  and  little  used  before 
1860.  They  seem  to  have  been  ac- 
cepted by  newspaper  publishers 
because  they  were  a  mechanical 
necessity,  for  it  had  been  found 
that  stereotyping  by  the  papier- 
mach6  process  and  presswork 
on  rotary  machines  could  not 
be  done  well  from  the  lean  types 
then  in  use,  for  they  moulded 
badly,  wore  out  quickly,  and 
made  printing  muddy  and  indis- 
tinct. To  prevent  these  faults 
it  was  necessary  to  make  use  of 
wider  types,  with  broader  stems 
and  deeper  counters ;  but  these 
broader  faces  were  accepted  re- 
luctantly, for  they  wasted  space. 
Publishers  of  books  favor  the 
broad-faces  for  juvenile  school- 
books  only ;  for  all  standard 
books  in  large  type  they  prefer 
the  lean  faces.  In  England  and 
France  the  faces  most  used  are 
thinner  than  the  American. 


Irregularities  of  Measurement        117 

In  a  comparison  of  composition  done  with  two 
distinct  faces  of  type,  one  of  which  is  12  and  the 
other  15  ems  in  width,  there  will  be  a  NO  allowance 
corresponding  difference  in  the  num-  for  fat  *ypes 
ber  of  words  making  one  thousand  ems ;  but  this 
difference  in  the  count  does  not  modify  the  rule. 
Irregularities  in  the  thickness  of  types  should  be 
allowed  for  in  all  computations  of  space  or  pro- 
portion. In  every  exact  calculation  as  to  the  space 
that  will  be  occupied  by  a  proposed  type,  its  num- 
ber of  ems  to  the  alphabet  should  be  ascertained. 

The  unfairness  of  measuring  composition  by 
the  em  quadrat  is  shown  by  the  illustration  on 
the  next  leaf.  The  four  faces  there  shown  are 
on  long-primer  body,  and  the  measure  of  each 
is  twenty  ems  of  long-primer.  The  composition 
in  each  face  is  now  measured  as  one  hundred  ems, 
but  the  number  of  words  set  are  respectively  44, 
42,  38,  25.  The  compositor  of  the  thin  type  has 
then  to  do  much  more  labor  to  have  his  com- 
position counted  as  one  hundred  ems. 

The  progressive  widening  of  letters  for  small 
bodies  was  not  a  whim  of  the  punch-cutter :  it  was 
really  obligatory.  In  cutting  a  series  Smalltype8 
of  uniform  faces  the  type-founder  has  have  to  be  of 
to  widen  each  smaller  alphabet,  to  make  broader  face 
it  seem  uniform  with  the  larger  size,  and  to  main- 
tain a  proper  degree  of  clearness  and  durability. 
A  small  type  cut  to  the  same  geometrical  pro- 
portion as  a  large  type  would  seem  condensed  and 


118          Unfairness  of  the  Standards 

not  of  the  same  style.  The  legibility  of  a  small 
text-type  depends  more  upon  the  width  of  its  let- 
ters than  upon  their  height.  A  wide  or  broad-faced 
letter  is  always  more  readable  than  a  condensed 
letter,  because  it  seems  of  a  larger  body.  The 
increased  width  now  given  to  the  small  sizes 
may  have  been  thought  sufficient  justification  for 
the  new  standards,  but  they  have  destroyed  the 
value  of  the  em  as  a  unit  of  measure.  The  term 
one  thousand  ems,  as  now  used,  does  not  fairly 
describe  the  amount  of  a  compositor's  labor,  or 
even  approximately  the  number  of  words  in  his 
composition.  Under  present  standards  the  com- 
positor of  books  has  to  set  from  one  fifth  to  one 
half  more  matter  than  the  news  compositor  to 
have  it  rated  as  one  thousand  ems.  At  the  same 
rate  and  on  the  same  copy  a  slow  compositor  can 
earn  more  on  agate  than  a  quick  compositor  can 
on  long-primer.  The  standard  of  13  ems  for  book- 
types  practically  puts  a  penalty  on  the  use  of  the 
Caslon-face,  the  French-face,  the  Scotch-face,  and 
nearly  every  popular  face  made  before  1860,  to  the 
great  damage  of  the  type-founders  and  printers 
who  have  these  styles.  No  doubt  the  new  stan- 
dards were  made  in  the  belief  that  the  broad  faces 
of  the  newspapers  would  be  accepted  by  publish- 
ers of  books,  but  the  opposition  of  publishers  is 
as  strong  now  as  it  was  thirty  years  ago. 

A  new  method  of  measuring  composition  has 
recently  been  offered. 


Illustrations  of  Irregularities         119 


1 1  j£  em  quadrats  to  the  lower-case  alphabet. 
2.6^2  lower-case  ems  to  the  measure. 

Open  your  watch  and  look  at  the  little  wheels, 
springs  and  screws,  each  an  indispensable  part  of 
the  wonderful  machine.  Notice  the  busy  little 
balance-wheel  as  it  flies  to  and  fro,  day  and  night, 
year  in  and  year  out.  This  wonderful  machine  is 

i2*/s  em  quadrats  to  the  lower-case  alphabet. 
231A  lower-case  ems  to  the  measure. 

Open  your  watch  and  look  at  the  little  wheels, 
springs  and  screws,  each  an  indispensable  part 
of  the  wonderful  machine.  Notice  the  busy  lit- 
tle balance-wheel  as  it  flies  to  and  fro,  day  and 
night,  year  in  and  year  out.  This  wonderful 

13!^  em  quadrats  to  the  lower-case  alphabet. 
23^  lower-case  ems  to  the  measure. 

Open  your  watch  and  look  at  the  little 
wheels,  springs  and  screws,  each  an  indis- 
pensable part  of  the  wonderful  machine. 
Notice  the  busy  little  balance-wheel  as  it 
flies  to  and  fro,  day  and  night,  year  in  and 

18^X3  em  quadrats  to  the  lower-case  alphabet. 
16%  lower-case  ems  to  the  measure. 

Open  your  watch  and  look  at 
tlie  little  wheels,  springs  and 
screws,  each,  an  indispensable 
part  of  tlie  wonderful  machine. 
Notice  the  busy  little  balance- 


irregularities  of  measurement  in  four  faces  of  long-primer. 


120      Spencer  Method    French  Method 

Alexander  Spencer  proposes  that  the  ten  lower- 
case letters  most  used  should  be  selected  as  the 
basis  for  a  system  of  measuring  composition  by 
letters.  These  ten  letters,  e,  t,  a,  i,  s,  o,  n,  h,  r,  d,1 
are  to  be  set  up  repeatedly  in  the  line  to  be  mea- 
sured until  the  line  is  full.  The  number  of  letters 
that  can  be  put  in  the  stick,  including  the  final 
justifying  space  if  any,  is  to  be  accepted  as  the 
proper  number  of  letters  of  count  for  width. 

The  letters  selected  are  thin,  but  the  gain  there- 
from is  not  so  great  as  might  be  expected.  It  will 
vary  with  the  width  of  the  measure,  making  from 
five  to  eight  per  cent,  more  than  would  be  had 
from  the  older  method  of  measuring  with  all  the 
letters.  The  merit  of  this  system  is  in  its  removal 
of  restrictions  on  type-founders,  but  the  selection 
of  the  ten  most  used  letters  and  a  possible  added 
space  is  a  factitious  basis  for  a  system  of  measure- 
ment that  is  intended  to  be  equitable. 

In  the  French  method  the  space  taken  by  the 
twenty -four  letters  of  their  alphabet  is  computed 
as  twenty-four  letters.  The  number  of  letters  is 
determined  by  filling  the  line  to  be  measured  with 
repetitions  of  the  alphabet,  and  counting  the  let- 
ters that  can  be  put  in  the  stick.  The  number  of 

iMr.  Spencer  selects  his  ten  e    1000  h  ..540  f  ..236  v  120 

letters  from  a  table  in  Brewer's  *  --770  r   ..528  w.,190  k..88 

-Dictionary  of  Phrase  and  Fa-  a"728  _d  "392  ?--™  J"55 

ble"  (p.  507),  which  gives  the  *   ~™  ^  ~™  £  ;;JJ  *;;» 

following  figures  as  the  propor-  o  .  .672  c   .  .280  b  .  .158  z  .  .22 

tionate  use  of  lower-case  letters  r  n  . .  670  in . .  272 


English  Method     Union  Method      121 

letters  so  ascertained  in  one  line  is  multiplied  by 
the  number  of  solid  lines  in  the  length  of  the  mat- 
ter composed.  This  method  is  as  elastic  The  French 
as  it  is  correct.  The  compositor  gains  metllod 
nothing  by  thick  and  loses  nothing  by  thin  letters. 
As  the  entire  lower-case  alphabet  is  made  the  basis 
of  count,  no  unfairness  can  be  practised  with  any 
unduly  thickened  letter. 

The  English  unit  for  measuring  composed  mat- 
ter is  the  en  quadrat.  The  number  of  ens  in  the 
line  to  be  measured  is  multiplied  by  The  English 
the  number  of  solid  lines.  The  unit  is  method 
different,  but  the  method  of  measurement  is  the 
same  as  that  of  the  United  States.  One  thousand 
ens  English  equal  five  hundred  ems  American. 

The  International  Typo  graphical  Union  of  North 
America  recently  formulated  a  new  method  for 
determining  the  correlative  widths  of  New  rules 
lower-case  types,  and  as  a  proper  basis  for  width 
for  the  measurement  of  composition.  The  lower- 
case alphabet  must  be  divided  in  two  equal  parts, 
with  thirteen  letters  in  each  part.  The  part  that 
contains  the  letters  c,  d,  e,  i,  s,  m,  n,  h,  o,  u,  a,  t,  z, 
must  be  of  the  same  length  as  the  part  containing 
the  other  thirteen  letters.  This  new  regulation, 
which  seems  to  have  been  made  as  a  safeguard  to 
prevent  the  capricious  thickening  of  the  width  of 
any  one  type  to  the  disadvantage  of  the  piece  com- 
positor, is  of  doubtful  general  utility.  Since  the 
introduction  in  composing-rooms  of  the  Linotype 


122  The  Set  of  Type-founders 

and  Lanston,  and  of  other  type-casting  machines, 
there  has  been  a  marked  decline  in  the  practice  of 
piece  composition.  All  the  new  type-making  and 
type-setting  machines  are  constructed  to  favor  the 
production  of  types  on  a  wider  set.  The  nominal 
or  measurable  production  of  these  machines  is 
largely  increased  by  greater  fatness  in  the  types, 
which  are  rarely  less  than  ten  per  cent,  (and  are 
sometimes  twenty  per  cent.)  fatter  than  types  made 
after  the  old  standards  of  good  form. 

Set  is  the  word  used  by  type-founders  to  define 
the  set  or  adjustment  of  the  mould,  which  deter- 
mines the  width  of  each  type.  An  en  quadrat  is  on 
the  en  set ;  a  three-to-em  space  is  on  the  three-to-em 
set  j  the  period  is  usually  on  the  five-to-em  set. 
When  a  printer  wishes  a  character  cast  to  a  pre- 
scribed width,  he  should  define  its  proposed  width 
by  the  word  set. 


Ill 


The  Point  System 

NE  of  the  defects  of  the  old  system 
of  naming  types  was  this — the  old 
names  (Jid  not  define  the  Oid  names 
bodies.  Small-pica  was  in-  did  not  de- 
tended  for  a  body  half -way  flneb< 
between  pica  and  long-primer,  but  in  one  foundry 
it  might  be  of  nearer  approach  to  long-primer,  and 
in  another  but  little  smaller  than  pica.  There 
was  no  agreement  among  founders  as  to  the  exact 
dimensions  of  small-pica,  long-primer,  or  any  other 
body.  Hansard  says:  "In  one  office  I  knew  of 
eight  fonts  of  pica  which  bore  the  following  pro- 
portions to  a  foot  measure :  71 J,  71  £,  70J,  71  £,  71, 
71J,  71J,  71J."1 

To  the  novice  these  irregularities  seem  trifling. 
The  variation  between  a  pica  71  lines  to  the  foot 

l  "  Typographia,"  p.  385. 
123 


124          The  Irregularities  of  Bodies 

and  another  pica  71J  lines  to  the  foot  is  not  a 
three-hundredth  part  of  an  inch — a  variation  that 
irregularity  cannot  be  seen  and  that  can  scarcely 
of  bodies  is  a  be  felt.  If  two  bodies  like  these  could 
serious  fault  aiwavs  foe  fcept  apart,  each  body  being 
used  in  detached  lines  or  in  distinct  work,  this 
variation  might  be  trifling.  But  an  entire  sepa- 
ration of  the  different  bodies  in  the  same  office  is 
practically  impossible.  Types  of  different  bodies 
sometimes  have  to  be  used  in  the  same  work — to 
be  made  up,  side  by  side,  in  pages  of  fifty  lines  or 
in  columns  of  two  hundred  lines.  They  often  have 
to  be  used  together  in  the  same  line.  If  the  type- 
body  of  one  page  of  fifty  lines  is  one  three-hun- 
dredth part  of  an  inch  shorter  than  that  of  another 
page,  then  the  first  page  will  be  one-sixth  of  an 
inch  shorter  than  its  mate.  In  a  column  of  two 
hundred  lines,  the  difference  will  be  two-thirds  of 
an  inch.  If  the  two  discrepant  bodies  be  put  in 
the  same  line,  as  they  have  to  be  in  the  displayed 
words  of  a  catalogue  or  a  dictionary,  the  differ- 
ence in  bodies  which  is  unnoticed  in  the  first  line 
makes  a  serious  crookedness  in  the  tenth  line,  and 
this  crookedness  will  keep  increasing  with  every 
succeeding  line. 

In  all  offices  the  rule  prevails  that  there  must 
be  no  mixing  of  types  from  different  foundries, 
even  if  they  are  apparently  of  the  same  face  and 
body.  To  disobey  this  rule  is  to  create  disorder; 
to  mix  the  types  of  two  fonts  spoils  both  fonts. 


Accuracy  Maintained  with  Difficulty   125 

The  contrasting,  side  by  side,  of  a  composition  of 
twenty  or  more  lines  of  two  fonts  that  seem  alike 
will  prove  that  they  are  seriously  unlike.  This 
dissimilarity  may  be  noticeable  not  only  in  the 
bodies  of  different  founders,  but  even  in  bodies 
that  have  been  made  by  the  same  founder  at  dif- 
ferent times. 

It  is  of  the  first  importance  that  types  should 
be  accurate,  yet  it  is  difficult  to  make  them  of  un- 
varying accuracy.  The  mould  of  steel  Difficultto 
will  swell  and  wear ;  the  matrix  of  cop-  make  type 
per  is  extremely  liable  to  imperceptible  accurate 
displacements.  Changes  in  the  composition  of  the 
metal,  and  in  the  degrees  of  heat,  produce  corre- 
sponding changes  in  the  dimensions  of  founded 
types.  A  little  more  or  a  little  less  pressure  in 
rubbing  the  type  will  make  corresponding  differ- 
ences in  the  size  of  the  body.  In  all  reputable  type- 
foundries  these  tendencies  to  irregularity  are  kept 
under  control,  and  seldom  lead  to  faults  serious 
enough  to  justify  complaint.  A  printer  can  order 
sorts  to-day  to  supplement  a  font  cast  twenty-five 
years  ago,  with  confidence  that  the  new  and  the 
old  can  be  safely  used  together.  But  this  rigid 
accuracy  is  maintained  only  by  testing  the  types 
as  they  are  cast  with  instruments  of  precision  that 
were  not  used  by  type-founders  a  hundred  years 
ago.  The  accuracy  of  the  exactest  founder  who 
cast  type  under  old  systems  was  only  of  partial 
benefit  to  the  printing  trade.  As  a  rule,  his  sizes 


126       Irregularities  an  Inherited  Evil 

differed,  and  in  some  instances  purposely  differed, 
from  those  of  other  founders.  The  printer  who 
had  to  buy  from  all  foundries  could  not  use  the 
types  of  two  or  more  founders  in  the  same  line  or 
even  on  facing  pages ;  he  could  not  safely  mix  the 
spaces  and  quadrats  of  different  fonts;  he  could 
not  even  determine  an  exact  measurement  by  the 
count  of  ems.  There  was  no  standard. 

These  irregularities  are  the  inherited  misfor- 
tunes of  printing.  They  can  be  seen  in  the  types 
Beginning  of  °^  tne  ^^  printers,  who  were  their 
irregularity  own  founders,  who  cast  their  types  in 
a  rude  adjustable  mould  (now  entirely 
out  of  use),  which  could  be  made  larger  or  smaller 
so  as  to  cast  two  or  more  bodies.  For  the  sake 
of  its  cheapness  the  early  printer  preferred  the 
mould  which  made  many  bodies  to  that  which 
made  one  body  only.  In  the  continued  readjust- 
ments of  this  mould  for  different  castings,  the 
inexpert  founder  made  unintended  deviations  and 
irregularities  of  body  which  he  and  his  successors 
were  obliged  to  perpetuate. 

Moxon,1  writing  in  1683,  named  ten  bodies  as 
those  most  used  in  England.  He  admits  that  the 
standards  Dutch  had  several  other  bodies,  but  he 
of  Moxon  faft  no^  think  them  worth  naming,  as 
they  differed  but  little  from  the  English  bodies. 
"  Yet  we  have  one  Body  more  which  is  sometimes 
used  in  England :  that  is  the  Small-Pica,  but  I 

1  "Mechanick  Exercises,"  pp.  13,  14. 


Early  English  Standards  127 

account  it  no  discretion  in  a  Master  Printer  to  use 
it  because  it  differs  so  little  from  the  Pica."  He 
gives  us  this  table,  "  wherein  is  set  down  the  num- 
ber of  each  Body  that  is  contained  in  one  Foot." 

Pearl 184  English 66 

Nomparel    150  Great-Primmer 50 

Brevier 112  Double-Pica 38 

Long-trimmer 92  Two-Lin'd  English. . .  33 

Pica 75  Great-Cannon 17^ 

Luckombe,1  writing  in  1770,  gives  another  table 
of  the  proper  dimensions  of  bodies  (probably  those 
of  the  first  Caslon),  which  shows  that  the  bodies 
then  made  deviated  largely  from  the  standards 
that  had  been  laid  down  by  Moxon: 

French  Canon 18  and  a  Great  Primer 

Two  Lines  Double  Pica 20  and  % 

Two  Lines  Great  Primer.  . .  25  and  an  n 

Two  Lines  English 32 

Two  Lines  Pica 35  and  % 

Double  Pica 41  and  an  n 

Paragon 44  and  an  n 

Great  Primer 51  and  an  r 

English 64 

Pica 71  and  an  n 

Small  Pica 83 

Long  Primer 89 

Burjois 102  and  a  space 

Brevier 112  and  an  n 

Minion 128 

Nonpareil 143 

Pearl 178 

1  "  History  of  Printing,"  p.  222. 


128  Later  English  Standards 

From  this  it  appears  that  six  new  sizes  had  been 
introduced  which  Luckombe  declared  were  not 
really  needed.  He  says :  "  How  much  less  value, 
therefore,  would  Mr.  Moxon  have  set  upon  Minion, 
Burjois,  and  Paragon  had  he  ever  seen  them."1 

The  old  Caslori  foundry,  from  which  Luckombe 
probably  obtained  his  measurements,  was  justly 
standards  considered  the  first  in  England,  but  its 
of  casion  inability  to  be  true  to  its  own  standards 
and  others  -g  s]lown  ^y  Hansard's2  comparison  of 
the  Casion  bodies  of  1770  with  those  made  in  1824. 
In  1825  he  published  in  his  "Typographia"  a  care- 
fully engraved  diagram  of  the  sizes  most  used, 
printed  on  dry  paper  to  prevent  shrinkage  ;  this 
showed  decided  variations  from  the  standards  of 
1770.  In  1842  Savage,  for  his  "Dictionary  of 
Printing,"  procured  from  the  same  foundry  the 

l  Luckombe  intimates  that  all  one  set,  pica  and  english  from 

the  so-called  irregular  bodies  are  another,  and  great-primer  and 

but  accidents ;  that  when  a  new  double  pica  from  the  third  set. 

face  had  been  cut  too  large  for  "  History  of  Printing,"  p.  225. 

the  body  for  which  it  was  in-  2  Hansard,    while    admitting 

tended,  and  too  small  for  an-  that  the  irregularities  of  type 

other,  this  new  face  was  put  on  originated  in  the  want  of  some 

an  intermediate  body.  It  is  evi-  generally  understood  standard, 

dent   that  the  early  founders  puts  the  greater  blame  on  those 

made  types  to  suit  themselves,  printers,  who  "from  a  love  of 

with  no  regard  for  the  needs  of  singularity  and  a  desire  to  avoid 

printers.     Luckombe  describes  the  inconvenience    of    lending 

the  "saving  way  "  of  a  "  Mr.  Jal-  sorts  .  .  .  still  order  their  fonts 

leson,  who  was  a  letter-founder  to  be  cast  on  an  irregular  body." 

from  Germany,  and  lived  here  in  "Typographia,"   p.  384.     This 

the  Old  Bailey,"  who  with  three  lending  was  also  avoided  in  an- 

sets  of  punches  offered  to  make  other  way  by  printers  who  had 

brevier  and  long-primer  from  their  types  made  low  to  paper. 


Savages  Comparison  of  Standards     129 

measurements  of  the  bodies  as  then  made,  which 
did  not  exactly  agree  with  those  that  had  been 
given  by  Hansard  in  1825.  Savage  also  gave  the 
following  table  of  the  measurements  of  the  bodies 
made  by  the  leading  founders  of  Great  Britain. 

Lines  of  Different  Sized  Type  in  One  Foot.1 


Bodies. 

Moxon, 
1683. 

Caslon, 
1841. 

V.  &  J. 

Figgins, 
1841. 

Thorow- 
good  & 
Besley, 
1841. 

Alex. 
Wilson 
&  Sons, 
1841. 

Diamond  

204 

205 

210 

204 

Pearl  

184 

178 

180 

184 

178 

Ruby  

166 

165 

163 

166 

Nonpareil 

150 

144 

144 

144 

144 

Emerald. 

128 

128 

Minion  

122 

122 

122 

122 

Brevier 

112 

111 

107 

112 

111 

Bourgeois  . 

102 

101^ 

103 

102 

Long  Primer 

92 

89 

90 

92 

89 

Small  Pica  

83 

82 

82 

83 

Pica        

75 

72 

72^ 

72 

72 

English  

66 

64 

64 

64^ 

64 

Great  Primer  
Paragon  

50 

51 

44k 

51 

44^ 

52 

51 
44^ 

Double  Pica  

38 

41  ^ 

41^ 

41 

41  ^ 

Two-line  Pica  
Two-line  English.  . 
Two-line  Gt.  Primer 
Two-line  Dbl.  Pica 
Trafalgar  . 

33 

36 
32 

25i£ 
20% 
20 

36 
32 

25^ 
20% 
20 

36 
321^ 
26 
20i£ 

36 
32 
25^ 
20% 
20 

Canon 

17  y% 

18 

18 

18 

18 

Savage's  "  Dictionary  of  Printing,"  p.  802. 


17 


130 


Recent  American  Standards 


The  deviations  of  leading  type-founders  in  the 
United  States  in  the  year  1856  were  as  serious,  as 
will  be  seen  in  the  following  table.  From  these  fig- 
ures it  does  not  appear  that  any  American  founder 
had  copied  the  standards  of  any  British  founder. 

Comparative  Scale  of  Ems  in  the  Linear  Foot.1 


Bodies. 

A 

London 
foundry. 

Bruce's 
NewYork 
foundry. 

A 

Phila. 
foundry. 

A 
NewYork 
foundry. 

A 

Boston 
foundry. 

Diamond  

205 

201.58 

204.50 

Pearl  

178 

179.59 

179 

Agate 

160 

165 

Nonpareil  

143 

142.54 

145 

Minion  

122 

126.99 

119 

128 

124.50 

Brevier  
Bourgeois 

112.50 
102.50 

113.13 
100  79 

109 
103.25 

112 
102.50 

115.66 
104  50 

Long  Primer  
Small  Pica  
Pica      

89 
83 
71.50 

89.79 
80 
71.27 

90 

83 
73 

90.50 
86.25 

72 

90 
84.50 

72 

English. 

64 

63.49 

C  olumbi  an 

56.25 

56.56 

Great  Primer 

51.25 

50  39 

Paragon 

44.50 

44.89 

Dbl  Small  Pica 

41.50 

40 

Dbl  Pica 

35.75 

35.63 

Dbl  English 

32 

31.74 

Dbl  Columbian 

28.28 

Dbl  Gt   Primer 

25.62 

25.19 

Dbl   Paragon 

22.44 

Meridian 

20.75 

20 

Canon  

18  33 

17  81 

l  "  Printer's  Miscellany,"  New  York,  July,  1857. 


Variations  in  Height  131 

Variations  in  the  height  of  types  have  not  been 
as  marked  as  variations  in  body.  English  and 
American  founders  came  to  a  practical  variations 
agreement  at  the  beginning  of  this  cen-  in  height 
tury  that  the  standard  of  height  should  be  eleven- 
twelfths  of  an  English  inch.  George  Bruce  of  New 
York  made  the  only  exception  5  his  standard  was 
a  little  higher.  In  France  the  height  of  type  had 
been  fixed  by  law  at  ten  and  a  half  geometric 
lines,  a  fraction  less  than  eighty-eight  one-hun- 
dredths  of  the  old  French  inch.  Modern  French 
types  are  higher  than  American  types ;  the  two 
heights  cannot  be  used  together.  German  types 
were  still  higher,  but  are  now  made  to  the  French 
standard.1  The  types  of  Russia  and  Poland,  once 
more  than  one  inch  in  height,  are  now  made  to 
conform  to  the  Berthold  system. 

Attempts  have  been  made  to  reduce  the  height, 
but  a  mass  of  types  much  shorter  than  those  now 
in  use  could  not  be  made  secure  in  a  chase. 

While  it  does  not  appear  that  any  founder's  sizes 
of  types  were  based  upon  a  generally  recognized 
measure,  there  was  some  understanding  that  the 
bodies  from  nonpareil  to  small-pica,  inclusive, 
should  be  limited  to  six.  It  was  found  that  these 
six  bodies  were  enough  to  make  all  the  gradations 

i  This  reform  was   made  by  vatory.     He  modelled  and  had 

Heinrich  Berthold,  a  prominent  constructed    several   standards 

type-founder  of  Berlin,  under  of  steel  and   sent  one  gratui- 

the  guidance  of  professors  of  tously  to  every  German  type- 

the  Berlin  Astronomical  Obser-  founder. 


132         Plan  Proposed  by  Fergusson 

in  size  demanded  by  printer,  publisher,  or  reader. 
There  also  seems  to  have  been  an  understanding 
six  bodies  ^nat  ^  larger  and  smaller  bodies  should 


serve  for     be  made  by  halving  or  doubling  the  six 

standards     gtan^ar(j  g^^      pica  wag   ^  double  of 

nonpareil,  and  english  the  double  of  minion.  Pearl 
was  the  half  of  long-primer,  and  diamond  the  half 
of  bourgeois.  The  English  names  of  double  pica, 
double  english,  and  double  great-primer  show  that 
these  dimensions  were  or  should  have  been  deter- 
mined by  the  three  smaller  bodies.  But  these  three 
small  bodies  were  often  inexact,  or  out  of  pro- 
portion with  each  other,  and  the  doubling  and 
redoubling  of  their  bodies  exaggerated  the  fault. 
If  the  small-pica  had  been  made  but  little  larger 
than  long-primer,  then  the  double  small-pica  would 
be  but  little  larger  than  paragon.  There  would  be 
a  wide  gap  between  the  double  small-pica  and  the 
double  pica,  and  this  gap  would  be  still  more  con- 
spicuous in  the  redoubled  size  of  meridian  when 
contrasted  with  canon. 

A  simple  plan  for  securing  uniformity  in  bodies 
was  proposed  in  1824  by  James  Fergusson  of  Scot- 
land, in  the  following  words  : 

Plain  and  Accurate  Eules  for  obtaining  Permanent   Uni- 
formity in  the  Sizes  of  the  Bodies  of  Types,  and  in  their 
Height  to  Paper. 
1.  Let  the  fount  called  Nonpareil  be  made  the  fun- 

damental standard,  and  make  12  lines  of  Nonpareil 

measure  exactly  one  inch. 


Fournier's  System  of  Points          133 

2.  Let  14  lines  of  Nonpareil  be  the  common  measure 
for  all  other  founts ;  this  measure  to  take  in  5  lines  of 
Great  Primer,  6  of  English,  7  of  Pica,  8  of  Small  Pica, 
9  of  Long  Primer,  10  of  Bourgeois,  11  of  Brevier,  and 
12  of  Minion. 

3.  Let  11  lines  of  Nonpareil  be  the  standard  of  height 
to  paper. 

A  conformity  with  these  rules  would  evidently  prove 
of  great  benefit  to  Printers  and  might  ultimately  not  be 
less  so  to  Letter -founders.  If  adopted,  the  bodies  of 
English,  Pica  and  Small  Pica  will  be  a  little  enlarged ; 
Long  Primer  and  Brevier  a  little  diminished.1 

Fergusson's  plan  was  never  adopted.  In  1841 
Bower,  a  type-founder  of  Sheffield,  proposed  the 
establishment  of  a  graduated  scale  of  sizes  based 
upon  pica  as  the  common  standard,  but  his  pro- 
posal was  never  accepted  by  the  trade. 

The  first  practical  attempt  at  uniformity  was 
made  in  France  by  the  type-founder  Pierre  Simon 
Fournier,  about  the  year  1737.  In  his  "  Manuel 
Typographique  "  of  1764  he  gives  this  explanation 
of  his  system  of  Typographic  Points : 2 

This  subject  needs  'special  explanation  because  it  is 
new  and  unknown.  I  place  it  here  to  show  the  new  pro- 
portions which  I  have  given  to  the  bodies  of  type  by 
means  of  the  fixed  measures  that  I  call  Typographic 
Points. 

The  last  regulation  of  the  Library,  made  in  1723, 
fixed  the  height-to-paper  at  ten  and  a  half  geometrical 
lines.  This  rule  is  as  easy  to  give  as  to  practise ;  but  it 

1  Hansard,  "  Typographia,"  p.  389.  «  Vol.  i,  p.  125. 


134          Foamier' s  System  of  Points 

was  quite  another  matter  when  this  regulation  under- 
took to  establish  laws  that  should  govern  the  dimensions 
of  the  bodies.  When  this  regulation  was  made,  no  one, 
apparently,  had  been  found  who  was  competent  to  give 
correct  information  concerning  this  matter.  A  proper 
person  was  much  needed,  for  he  could  have  corrected 
abuses,  and  could  have  created  order  and  precision 
where  there  never  had  been  any.  In  the  absence  of 
better  knowledge  on  this  subject,  a  master  printer  gave 
for  a  standard,  with  all  their  imperfections,  such  types 
as  he  found  in  his  own  printing  office.  The  regulation 
based  on  this  standard,  not  being  founded  on  any  proper 
basis,  has  not  been  complied  with.  This  is  the  reason 
why  the  bodies  of  types  have  never  had  fixed  and  ac- 
curate dimensions,  and  why  the  irregularity  is  just  as 
great  now  as  it  was  before  the  regulation. 

In  article  LIX  of  this  regulation,  it  is  stated  that, 
to  be  of  proper  dimensions,  Petit-canon  [about  double 
english]  should  be  equal  to  two  bodies  of  Saint-augustin 
[english] ;  that  Gros-parangon  [double  small-pica]  should 
be  equal  to  one  Cice'ro  [pica]  and  one  Petit-romain 
[long-primer] ,  etc. ;  but  the  dimensions  which  the  Saint- 
augustin,  the  Cicero,  and  the  Petit-romain  should  have, 
in  order  to  make,  by  combination,  the  Petit-canon  or  the 
Gros-parangon,  are  not  given.  Consequently,  any  one 
has  opportunity  to  evade  the  regulation,  and  it  is  done 
at  pleasure,  without  liability  to  penalty.  One  may  make 
a  Saint-augustin  body  smaller  than  another,  and  may 
contract  the  Petit-canon  to  double  this  thickness,  but 
he  will  comply  with  the  regulation.  Another  may  make 
this  Saint-augustin  body  more  or  less  too  large,  and 
from  two  of  these  bodies  he  may  make  his  Petit-canon ; 
but  in  this  case  also  the  letter  of  the  regulation  will 
be  complied  with,  although  it  is  a  clear  violation  of 


Fournier's  System  of  Points          135 

the  intention.  In  this  way  confusion  is  perpetuated 
to  such  an  extent  that  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  per- 
ceive the  distinction  between  two  bodies  of  type  of 
which  the  larger  size  is  below  the  standard,  and  the 
smaller  size  is  above  it.  Then,  again,  it  sometimes 
happens  that  in  two  fonts  of  the  same  name  the  bodies 
vary  more  or  less,  and  when  they  are  found  in  the  same 
printing  house,  the  workmen  mix  together  the  quadrats 
and  spaces  to  the  ruin  of  both  fonts. 

It  may  be  said  that  the  regulation  has  provided  for 
this  fault,  by  the  rule  which  obliges  founders  to  receive 
a  certain  number  of  types  of  each  body,  to  the  dimen- 
sions of  which  they  are  required  to  conform,  under 
penalty.  But  these  model  types,  which  were  only  pro- 
posed in  theory,  and  which  have  never  been  given, 
would  not  have  remedied  the  evil  that  should  have 
been  avoided ;  for  bodies  so  given  would  have  been  of 
undetermined  dimensions,  without  correct  proportion, 
without  exact  relation,  and,  in  fine,  without  scientific 
basis.  These  pretentious  regulations,  instead  of  pro- 
ducing accuracy  and  order,  on  the  contrary  have  in- 
creased the  confusion  by  multiplying  types  for  which 
there  was  no  need.  Thus  we  have,  according  to  the  reg- 
ulation, bodies  like  Petit-canon,  Gros-parangon,  Gros- 
romain,  Cicero,  Philosophic,  Gaillarde,  and  Mignone, 
without  double  bodies  for  the  two-line  letters,  all  of 
which  are  virtually  unauthorized.  Here  there  are  seven 
or  eight  bodies  [of  two-line  letters  only]  without  names, 
useless  for  every  other  purpose,  and  a  needless  expense 
to  the  printing  office.  Moreover,  these  combinations  of 
bodies  —  of  a  Cicero  and  a  Petit-romain  to  make  a  Gros- 
parangon  ;  of  a  Petit-romain  and  a  Petit-texte  to  make 
a  Gros-romain ;  of  a  Petit-texte  and  a  Nompareille  to 
make  a  Saint-augustin — indicate  but  slender  experience 


136          Fournier's  System  of  Points 

and  capacity  in  those  who  proposed  them.  Why  divide 
these  bodies  in  unequal  parts,  which  lead  to  nothing, 
and  for  which  there  can  be  no  explanation  ?  This  part 
of  the  regulation  has  never  been  executed. 

The  defects  of  existing  usages  have  been  perceived, 
but  no  one  has  tried  to  find  the  remedy.  The  printers, 
who  are  the  only  parties  who  have  been  consulted  on 
this  subject,  have  not  been  sufficiently  educated  as 
typographers  to  discuss  the  question  critically,  or  to 
make  rules  for  a  branch  of  the  art  which  they  do  not 
practise,  and  of  which  they  often  know  but  little  more 
than  the  name. 

To  clear  this  chaos,  and  to  give  this  branch  of  typog- 
raphy an  order  which  never  before  reigned  there,  is  the 
subject  that  has  engaged  my  attention.  By  the  inven- 
tion of  the  Typographic  Points,  I  think  that  I  have  had 
the  pleasure  to  be  successful,  with  an  accuracy  and  pre- 
cision that  leave  nothing  to  be  desired.  This  invention 
is  nothing  more  than  the  separation  of  the  bodies  of 
types  by  equal  and  determinate  degrees,  which  I  call 
Points.  By  this  method,  the  degrees  of  separation  and 
the  degrees  of  proximity  in  the  bodies  of  types  may  be 
comprehended  with  exactness.  Types  may  be  combined 
like  arithmetical  figures,  as,  for  example,  two  and  two 
make  four ;  add  two,  and  there  will  be  six ;  double  this, 
and  there  will  be  twelve,  etc.  In  like  manner,  a  Nom- 
pareille, which  has  six  points,  when  added  to  another 
Nompareille  will  make  a  Cice'ro,  which  has  a  dozen 
points ;  to  this  add  another  Nompareille,  and  there  will 
be  eighteen  points,  or  a  Grros-romain ;  double  all  this, 
which  will  make  thirty-six  points,  and  there  will  be  a 
Trismegiste,  which  has  this  number.  Similar  results  may 
be  had  from  all  the  other  bodies,  as  may  be  seen  in  the 
table  of  proportions  annexed. 


Fournier's  System  of  Points          137 

To  combine  the  bodies,  it  is  enough  to  know  only  the 
number  of  typographic  points  of  which  they  are  com- 
posed. For  this  purpose  it  is  of  the  first  importance 
that  these  points,  or  given  units,  should  be  invariable, 
so  that  they  may  serve  as  rules  or  measures  in  the 
printing  office,  just  as  the  foot  [pied-du-roi] ,  the  inch, 
and  the  line  serve  in  geometry.  With  this  object  in 
view,  I  have  fixed  these  points  of  the  exact  sizes  they 
should  have,  in  the  scale  which  is  at  the  head  of  the 
table  of  proportions;  and  to  make  unvaryingly  exact 
the  casting  of  the  types,  I  have  devised  an  instrument 
which  I  call  a  prototype,  of  which  an  illustration  and 
description  will  be  given  on  another  page. 

At  the  head  of  this  table  is  a  fixed  and  standard  scale. 
I  have  divided  it  in  2  inches;  the  inch  in  12  lines, 
and  the  line  in  6  of  these  typographic  points  5  making 
altogether  144  points.  The  first  minute  divisions  are 
of  two  points,  which  is  the  distance  between  the  body 
of  a  Petit-texte  and  of  a  Petit-romain,  or  from  this 
latter  size  to  the  body  of  a  Cice'ro.  The  number  of 
points  which  I  allot  to  each  of  the  bodies  should  be 
taken  by  measure  on  this  scale.  If  the  measures  are 
accurately  and  specially  taken  for  each  body,  and  are 
verified  upon  the  prototype,  they  will  establish  a  sys- 
tematic gradation  of  sizes  for  all  bodies  of  types,  as 
will  be  demonstrated  by  the  following  combinations. 

The  invention  of  these  points  in  1737  is  the  first  ser- 
vice that  I  rendered  to  typography.  Compelled  then 
to  begin  a  tedious,  painful,  and  laborious  task,  in  the 
engraving  of  all  the  punches  needed  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  my  foundry,  I  found  no  standard  rule  that 
could  guide  me  in  determining  the  bodies  of  the  types 
I  had  to  make.  I  was  thus  obliged  to  make  a  system 
18 


138       The  Defect  of  Fournier's  System 

for  my  own  use.  That  I  have  done  this  will  be  apparent 
by  the  following  table. 

This  scale  contains  in  its  entirety  twelve  bodies  of 
Cice'ro.  After  printing  and  publishing  this  table  in 
1737,  I  noticed  that  the  paper  in  drying  had  shrunk  a 
little  below  the  proper  dimensions  of  the  scale.  In  this 
print  I  have  prevented  this  error,  by  making  a  proper 
provision  for  the  shrinkage  of  the  paper. 

The  table  appended  to  Founder's  diagram  shows 
his  allotment  of  typographic  points  to  the  bodies 
then  in  greatest  use.  In  similar  manner  the  table 
proceeds  through  all  sizes  to  eight-line,  or  G-ros- 
nompareille  of  96  points.  Each  of  the  larger  sizes 
is  not  only  an  exact  double  of  a  smaller  size,  but 
is  the  sum  of  two  or  more  smaller  sizes.  Every 
body  is  an  exact  multiple  of  the  point ;  all  bodies 
can  consequently  be  combined  with  facility  and 
without  justification. 

After  this  statement  of  the  evils  of  irregularity, 
and  of  the  need  of  precise  standards,  the  reader 
The  point  was  Properly  expects  to  see  a  careful  print 
not  based  on  from  a  copperplate  of  this  standard 

legal  measure     gcale  of  M4   points?  and   a   statement 

that  the  two  inches  of  this  scale  are  inches  of  a 
legal  standard  French  measure.  Instead  of  this 
he  is  referred  to  a  roughly  constructed  diagram, 
undeniably  made  of  bits  of  rule,  badly  jointed, 
and  put  together  so  clumsily  as  to  provoke  a 
suspicion  of  its  accuracy.  This  suspicion  is  not 
allayed  by  the  statement  of  Fournier  that  he  had 


The  Fixed  Scale  ofFournier         139 


TABLE  GEN&RALE 
DE  LA  PROPORTION 

des  dtffcrens  Corps  de  Caracleres. 


£CHELLE    FIXE 

de  444  points  Typagrapfiiqu.es. 


± 


PARISIENNE.  ......... 

NOMPAREILLE » 

MIGNONE.  .......... 

PETIT  •  TEXTE. 

GAILLARDE*  ......... 

PETIT-ROM  AIN.  —  ±  Parifiennes.. 

PHILOSOPHIE.  =  i  Parif,.  i  Nom- 
pareille. 

CICERO^  —  a  Nomp^  ==  i  Pari- 
Cenne ,  i  Mignane. 

SAINT-AUGUSTIN.  -  2  Mignones. 
ss  i  Nompareille ,  i  Petit-texte. 


"  Manuel  Typographique,"  facsimile  of  p.  125,  vol.  i. 


140  The  Prototype  ofFournier 

"made  provision"  (by  conjecture?)  for  a  possible 
alteration  in  the  scale  from  the  shrinkage  of  wet 
paper.  It  is  still  more  astonishing  to  learn  that 
this  rude  scale  and  the  prototype  (a  larger  mea- 
sure of  240  points)  are  the  only  standards  offered 


The  height-gauge  and  its  type-support. 


The  measuring  rod  of  240  points. 


The  prototype  of  240  points,  in  reduced  facsimile. 

for  the  determination  of  the  bodies.  In  another 
part1  of  his  book  Fournier  illustrates  his  proto- 
type and  its  measuring  rod,  his  height-gauge  and 
its  type-support.  He  does  not  minutely  describe 
the  use  of  these  tools.  "We  have  to  infer  that 
accuracy  was  proved,  or  inaccuracy  detected,  by 

l  "Manuel  Typographique,"  vol.  i,  p.  303  ;  vol.  ii,  plate  vni. 


Advantages  of  the  Points  141 

feeling  with  the  fingers  the  types  in  the  prototype, 
or  the  height-gauge.  In  no  part  of  his  book  does 
he  allude  to  a  micrometer,  or  to  any  similar  in- 
strument of  precision.  It  is  certain  that  these  240 
points  were  not  an  even  fraction  of  the  standard 
French  foot.  They  approach  more  nearly  to  Eng- 
lish measures,  but  Fournier  does  not  refer  to  any 
standard  measure  for  the  verification  of  the  accu- 
racy of  his  scale  or  prototype.  The  only  standard 
of  appeal  is  a  diagram  printed  from  brass  rules, 
purposely  made  over  large  to  compensate  for  the 
shrinkage  of  wet  paper.1 

Imperfect  as  it  was,  Founder's  system  promised 
advantages  of  real  value  to  printers  and  founders. 
The  subdivisions  made  by  him  permit-  The  points 
ted  the  readjustment  of  the  sizes  then  promised 
in  use  without  any  serious  departure  advantases 
from  established  bodies.  It  required  but  little 
contraction  or  expansion  of  any  body  to  bring  it 
within  the  bounds  of  his  typographic  points.  So 
the  system  of  points  was  welcomed  by  printers 
as  a  valuable  improvement  in  typography;  and 
in  due  time  it  was  adopted  by  all  the  French 
type-founders. 

Fournier  states  that  his  object  was  to  separate 
the  bodies  of  types  at  equal  and  fixed  distances, 

1  It  is  probable  that  Fournier  so  that  it  would  not  seriously 

found  some  insuperable  obstacle  alter  the  dimensions  of  existing 

in  trying  to  make  his  point  a  sizes,  hoping  that  for  this  reason 

regular  fraction  of  the  French  it  would  be  accepted  by  printers 

foot ;  and  that  he  fixed  the  point  and  founders. 


142  DidoVs  System  of  Points 

but  it  should  be  noticed  that  the  types  themselves, 
although  at  equal  degrees  of  distance,  are  in  un- 
equal degrees  of  proportion  as  to  body.  Body  5  is 
one-fourth  larger  than  body  4 ;  body  6  is  one-fifth 
larger  than  body  5 ;  and  this  decrease  continues 
with  advancing  sizes:  body  11  is  but  one-tenth 
larger  than  body  10. 

Not  long  after  the  death  of  Fournier,  Frangois- 
Ambroise  Didot,  the  celebrated  type-founder  of 
The  point  P&™>  undertook  to  improve  the  system 
system  of  of  typographic  points.  His  first  step  to 
F.A.Didot  ^g  en(j  wag  ^Q  jjagg  the  pOints  upon  an 

authorized  lineal  measure.  For  this  purpose  he 
selected  the  royal  foot  of  France  (pied-du-roi), 
which  is  equal  to  12.7892  American  inches.  He 
preserved  intact  the  subdivisions  used  by  Four- 
nier: the  foot  contained  12  inches;  the  inch,  12 
lines ;  the  line,  6  typographic  points ;  making,  as 
before,  72  points  to  the  inch. 

In  the  readjustment  of  bodies  made  necessary  by 
this  alteration  the  smaller  faces  of  type  presented 
compelled  but  little  difficulty.  The  parisienne  and 
important  nompareille  of  Fournier  could  be  respec- 
changes  tively  adjusted  on  bodies  of  five  and  six 
points  of  slightly  increased  dimensions  without 
impropriety.  As  to  the  middle  sizes,  like  gaillarde, 
petit- texte,  and  mignone,  the  expansion  of  the  new 
points  was  too  much.  The  faces  previously  made 
for  these  sizes  were  found  too  large  for  one  body 
and  too  small  for  another.  In  some  instances  they 


Two  Systems  Used  Together         143 

were  crowded  on  smaller  bodies;  in  others  they 
were  put  on  larger  bodies ;  and  in  still  other  cases 
in  which  the  faces  could  not  be  transferred,  new 
fractional  sizes,  like  6£,  7J,  and  8J,  had  to  be  made. 
One  alteration  was  especially  unfortunate.  The 
cic£ro,  which  in  Fournier's  system  was  on  a  body 
of  12  points,  in  Didot's  system  was  put  on  a  body 
of  11  points.  The  difference  was  more  in  name 
than  in  fact,  nine- sixtieths  of  a  point — an  inap- 
preciable difference  on  a  single  body ;  but  it  was 
quite  enough  to  destroy  the  value  of  the  old  body 
of  cicero,  or  pica,  as  the  established  standard  for 
determining  the  thickness  of  leads  and  furniture. 

That  each  body  might  be  identified  with  pre- 
cision, Didot  rejected  the  old  names,  and  gave  to 
each  size  a  numerical  name :  parisienne  was  called 
corps  5 ;  nompareille,  corps  6 ;  mignone,  corps  7 ; 
cicero,  corps  11,  etc.  The  name  defined  the  body 
and  showed  its  relations  to  other  bodies. 

The  simplicity  of  this  numerical  classification, 
the  real  need  of  a  better  standard  for  bodies  than 
Founder's  prototype,  and,  more  than'  Concurrent 
all,  the  authority  of  such  an  eminent  use  of  the 
typographer  as  Didot,  were  sufficient  twosy8tem8 
to  constrain  many  French  type-founders  to  adopt 
the  new  system.  It  was  not,  however,  sufficiently 
meritorious  to  overcome  every  objection.  Many 
printers,  some  in  Paris,  but  more  in  the  provinces, 
adhered  to  the  system  of  Fournier.  To  the  great 
injury  of  master  printers  the  two  systems  were  for 


144         Their  Relation  to  Each  Other 

a  long  time  in  concurrent  use.  A  recent  French 
writer  on  typography  states  that  they  were  so 
confounded  in  1867  that  it  was  almost  impossi- 
ble in  a  Parisian  office  to  make  an  exact  measure 
from  a  calculation  by  points.1 

Fournier's  system  is  also  known  in  France  as 
the  System  Eleven,  or  the  Bastard  System,  or  the 
Indivisible  System.  The  allotment  by  Didot  of 
eleven  points  to  the  old  standard  size  of  cicero 
or  pica  has  been  wrongly  attributed  to  Fournier, 
and  is  supposed  to  have  some  mysterious  value, 
for  eleven  is  practically  an  indivisible  number.2 


9 
10 
11 
12 
14 

This  table,  published  by  a  type-founder3  at  Brus- 
sels, for  the  purpose  of  illustrating  his  ability  to 
furnish  bodies  of  types  made  by  both  systems,  will 

i  '  '  Sous  I'influence  de  la  con-  2  The  rival  claims  made  for 

fusion  deplorable  qui,  en  per-  Fournier  and  Didot  as  inven- 

mettant  aux  deux  systemes  de  tors  of  the  point  system  have 

s'introduire  concurremment   a  been  carefully  examined  by  M. 

Finsu  des  maitres  imprimeurs,  Gusset  of  Paris,  and  published 

a  jete*    une  veritable  perturba-  by  him  in  the  "  Proces-verbaux 

tion  dans  le  materiel  de  presque  de    la    Socie"te*    f  raternelle   des 

toutes  les  imprimeries,  en  sorte  Protes     des     Imprimeries     de 

qu'  il  y  est  devenu  a  peu  pres  im-  Paris."     Reprinted  in  '  '  L'lm- 

possible  de  rien  e"tablir  de  juste  primerie,"  No.  108,  1873. 

en  calculant  par  points."    Le-  3  "  Specimen  Book  of  M.  T. 

chap,  "  L'Imprimerie,"  No.  44.  Vanderborght,"  Brussels,  1861. 


Fournier. 
Parisienne   .  .     5 
Nompareille  .     6 
Mignone  7 
Petit-texte  .  .     8      . 
Gaillarde  9      . 

Didot. 
.     5 
.     6 

.     7 
•     7* 
.     8 

F< 

Petit-romain  .  . 
Philosophie  .  .  .  . 
Cicero  

ourni 
10 
11 
12 
14 
16 

Saint-augustin  . 
Gros-texte  

Defect  in  the  Didot  System  145 

serve  also  to  show  the  relations  that  the  bodies  of 
the  two  systems  bear  to  each  other. 

It  is  a  misfortune  that  these  scientific  systems 
should  have  been  perfected  before  the  introduction 
of  the  French  metrical  system.  Four-  The  system8 
nier's  is  imperfect  in  its  want  of  basis  prematurely 
on  an  established  measure.  Didotfs  is  introduced 
imperfect  in  its  selection  of  a  disused  measure  for 
a  basis.  Neither  of  them  has  any  direct  relation 
to  the  metrical  system.  That  of  Didot  is  at  com- 
plete variance  with  the  metre  in  every  part.1  The 
accident  that  100  points  of  Fournier  accord  with 
35  millimetres  has  led  to  no  practical  result  in 
France :  a  standard  of  35  millimetres  has  not  been 
used  by  the  French  founders  as  a  scale  or  mea- 
sure for  subdivision. 

Before  Fournier  and  Didot  had  introduced  their 
systems,  cicdro  (or  pica)  served  for  a  unitary  stan- 
dard, as  it  continues  to  serve  in  England    A  defect  in 
and  America.    Its  dimensions  were  va-    the  Didot 
riable,  yet  it  was  a  convenient  unit  for    system 
calculation.    Leads,  regie ts,  furniture,  brass  rules, 
cuts,  large  wood  and  metal  types,  were  made  on 

1  This  defect  in  the  Didot  sys-  much  smaller  than  the  one  now 

tern  has  been  the  occasion  of  in  use  —  smaller  even  than  that 

many  attempts  to  bring  Didot's  of  Fournier  or  of  the  American 

points  in  accord  with  the  met-  system.   This  is  a  practical  con- 

rical  system  of   France.     One  fession  that  the  Didot  point  is 

of  these  attempts  was  that  of  too  large,  and  that  the  distance 

Charles  Verneuil,  who  proposed  between  the  bodies  is  too  great, 

that  the  unitary  point  should  be  It  is  not  probable  that  this  new 

made  equal  to  two  millimetres,  plan  will  be  accepted.    "L'lm- 

This   would   make    the    point  primerie,"  No.  161. 
19 


146        Bruc&s  System  of  Progression 

bodies  that  were  the  multiples  or  divisors  of  pica. 
By  Founder's  method,  pica  or  cicero  was  made 
of  twelve  points,  which  was  a  divisible  number. 
When  Didot  accommodated  this  pica  to  an  even 
division  of  the  royal  foot,  and  put  it  on  body  11  of 
his  system  of  points,  he  made  it  virtually  an  in- 
divisible unit.  It  is  not  practicable  to  make  leads 
or  brass  to  the  fractions  of  eleven.  Intelligent 
Parisian  typographers  admit  that  this  is  a  real 
fault,  and  do  not  hesitate  to  avow  their  preference 
for  the  system  of  Fournier1  as  the  more  natural 
and  more  advantageous  of  the  two,  inasmuch  as 
it  graduates  the  bodies  of  type  in  infinitesimal 
proportions  more  available  than  those  of  Didot. 

The  first  practical  attempt  in  America  at  the 
establishment  of  correct  proportions  between  the 

1  On  the  contrary,  M.  Labou-  type  bodies  ?  What  is  the  point 
laye,  in  his  "  Dictionary  of  Arts  Didot  in  millimetres  ?  '  L'An- 
and  Manufactures,"  objects  to  nuaire '  of  the  Bureau  of  Longi- 
any  change  in  the  Didot  point,  tudes  makes  the  line  of  the  pied- 
He  makes  these  observations  in  du-roi  O^  2,256,  of  which  one- 
the  article  on  Fonderie  en  Car-  sixth  is  0""*  376.  Should  this  great 
actires,  §  8 :  "  Attempts  have  revolution  in  sizes  be  made  be- 
been  recently  made  to  return  to  cause  the  point  should  be  0°"°  35 
the  Fournier  point  by  making  instead  of  Omm  376  ?  The  first 
it  in  accord  with  the  new  mea-  decimal  division  is  not  better 
sures.  The  base  declared  is  that  than  the  second.  An  exact  milli- 
100  points  Fournier  make  ex-  metric  division  should  be  estab- 
actly  35  millimetres,  or  that  the  lished  on  another  basis,  on  one 
point  be  equal  to  about  Omm  35.  which  would  not  upset  all  the 
Now  would  it  be  wise  or  advan-  materials  now  in  use,  and  do  it 
tageous,  when  the  greater  part  for  so  little  benefit."  These  ob- 
of  printing  houses  have  been  servations  are  given  at  length 
fully  equipped,  often  at  great  to  show  that  the  point  system 
cost,  with  types  on  the  Didot  of  Didot  is  not,  even  in  Paris, 
point,  to  reduce  the  size  of  the  accepted  as  a  perfect  system. 


Bruce* s  System  of  Progression        147 

proximate  bodies  of  types  was  made  by  the  late 
George  Bruce  of  New  York  in  1822.     It  does  not 
appear  that  he  meant  to  establish  a  new    The  Bruce 
series  of  sizes.    His  object  was  to  make    system  of 
all  types  properly  correlated  with   as    Pr°sre88ion 
little  disturbance  as  possible  to  the  bodies  then  in 
regular  use. 

As  the  most  used  bodies  of  brevier,  long-primer, 
and  pica  were,  in  most  foundries,  very  nearly  cor- 
rect in  their  relations  to  each  other,  these  bodies 
were  taken  as  the  ones  which  should  be  least  dis- 
turbed, and  to  which  the  others  should  be  made  to 
conform  5  but  the  intermediate  and  so-called  irreg- 
ular sizes  were  adjusted  to  the  regular  sizes  with- 
out regard  to  old  usage.  Bruce  began  his  change 
by  determining  the  exact  size  of  the  six  standard 
bodies  from  pica  to  minion.  This  done,  the  dimen- 
sions of  larger  or  smaller  bodies  were  determined 
by  the  multiplication  or  division  of  the  six  standard 
bodies.  Conformity  was  obtained  by  making  the 
bodies  increase  by  the  rule  of  geometrical  progres- 
sion. Small-pica  was  made  as  much  larger  than 
long-primer  as  bourgeois  was  made  larger  than 
brevier.  Each  body  was  made  a  certain  percent- 
age larger  than  its  proximate  smaller  body.  This 
percentage  expressed  in  figures  is  the  decimal 
.122462,  which,  when  increased  six  times  in  a  series 
of  expanding  bodies,  doubles  on  the  seventh  pro- 
gression the  size  of  the  body  first  selected.  The 
Bruce  system  provides  for  uniformity  of  increase 


148        Bruce's  System  of  Progression 

The  Relation  of  Different  Bodies  of  Type  to  each  other 
and  to  standard  linear  measures  by  the  Bruce  System  oj 
Geometrical  Progression. 


Bodies. 

Size 
in  deci- 
mals of 
a  linear 
inch. 

Body  larger 
than  that 
preceding 
it,  in  deci- 
mals of  a 
linear  inch. 

Ems  and 
decimals 
of  an  em 
in  a  linear 
foot. 

Ems  and 
decimals 
of  an  em 
in  a  square 
foot. 

Diamond  

.0595+ 

201.587+ 

40,637.46+ 

Pearl 

.0668+ 

.0072+ 

179.593+ 

32,253.97+ 

Agate  

.075 

.0081+ 

160. 

25,600. 

Nonpareil  .    .    . 

.0841+ 

.0091+ 

142.543+ 

20,318.73+ 

Minion  

.0994+ 

.0103+ 

126.992+ 

16,126.98+ 

Brevier  

.1060+ 

.0115+ 

113.137+ 

12,800. 

Bourgeois  . 

.1190+ 

.0129+ 

100.793+ 

10,159.36+ 

Long-primer  .  .  . 

.1336+ 

.0145+ 

89.796+ 

8,'o63.49+ 

Small-pica  

.15 

.0163+ 

80. 

6,400. 

Pica  

.1683+ 

.0183+ 

71.271+ 

5  079.68+ 

English 

.1889+ 

.0206+ 

63.496+ 

4  031.74+ 

Columbian  

.2121+ 

.0231+ 

56.568+ 

3,200. 

Great-primer  .  .  . 

.2381+ 

.0259+ 

50.396+ 

2,539.84+ 

Paragon  

.2672+ 

.0291+ 

44.898+ 

2,015.87+ 

Double  sm.-pica 

.3 

.0327+ 

40. 

1,600. 

Double  pica  .... 

.3367+ 

.0367+ 

35.635+ 

1,269.92+ 

Double  english  . 

.3779+ 

.0412+ 

31.748+ 

1,007.93+ 

Double  columb. 

.4242+ 

.0462+ 

28.284+ 

800. 

Doub.  gt.-primer 

.4762+ 

.0519+ 

25.198+ 

634.96+ 

Double  paragon 

.5345+ 

.0583+ 

22.449+ 

503.96+ 

Meridian  

.6 

.0654+ 

20. 

400. 

Canon 

.6734+ 

.0734+ 

17.817+ 

317.48+ 

From  the  Bruce  Specimen  Book  of  1882. 


The  American  Point  System         149 

of  bodies ;  it  brings  under  the  rule  of  geometrical 
progression  not  only  the  bodies  but  the  distances 
between  the  bodies.  It  is  ingenious  and  scientific, 
but  has  not  been  adopted  by  any  other  American 
type-foundry.  For  sizes  larger  than  canon  it  is 
not  so  well  adapted.  All  American  and  English 
founders,  as  well  as  all  the  manufacturers  of  wood 
types,  make  their  larger  bodies  multiples  of  pica. 
Printers  prefer  this  system  for  large  types,  not 
for  its  superior  facility  of  combination,  but  for  its 
nicer  division  of  sizes.  For  the  smaller  types  the 
rule  of  geometrical  progression  brings  bodies  too 
near  together. 

After  a  fire,  which  destroyed  their  materials, 
Harder,  Luse  &  Co.,  type-founders  at  Chicago, 
planned  a  system  of  bodies  based  on  The  American 
six  picas  to  the  American  inch.  Be-  point  system 
fore  they  had  made  types  by  the  new  plan,  they 
perceived  that  its  adoption  would  compel  the  mak- 
ing not  only  of  new  bodies,  but  of  new  faces  which 
would  disagree  with  the  types  of  all  other  foun- 
dries. Abandoning  the  system  of  six  picas  to  the 
inch,  they  took  for  their  standard  the  pica  of 
the  MacKellar,  Smiths  &  Jordan  Co.  as  the  one 
which  would  be  preferred  by  the  greater  number 
of  printers  and  founders.  Upon  this  basis  they 
regraded  all  smaller  and  larger  sizes  after  the 
methods  of  Fournier.  In  1878  they  put  on  sale 
types  made  by  this  system,  which  they  called  the 
American  System  of  Interchangeable  Type  Bodies. 


150          The  American  Point  System 

At  a  meeting  of  the  United  States  Type  Foun- 
ders' Association,  held  at  Niagara  in  1886,  a  com- 
mittee was  appointed  to  examine  into 

Adopted  by 

united  states     and  to  report  upon  the  new  system. 
Type  Founders'  Several  founders  objected  to  its  basis 

Association  .  ....          ., 

upon  a  pica  capriciously  selected,  and 
not  a  regular  division  of  the  foot  or  metre,  but 
the  result  of  the  examination  was  the  adoption  of 
its  leading  features  by  a  majority  of  founders.  It 
was  found  that  the  pica  which  had  been  selected 
could  be  put  in  accord  with  the  metric  system, 
although  in  an  irregular  manner.  Eighty -three 
picas  were  equal  to  thirty-five  centimetres.  By 
dividing  the  pica  into  twelve  equal  parts,  and  ac- 
cepting one  of  these  parts  as  the  unit,  a  base  was 
made  for  the  determination  of  every  body.  This 
twelfth  part  of  a  pica  was  called  a  point.  All 
bodies  of  types  were  placed  on  multiples  of  this 
point  and  called  by  numerical  names :  pica  was 
12-point ;  double-pica,  24-point ;  four-line  pica,  48- 
point.  The  numerical  names  defined  the  bodies 
and  the  relation  that  each  body  had  to  the  rest. 
This  American  system  follows  the  methods  of 
Fournier  and  Didot,  differing  from  them  only  in 
its  selection  of  another  body  of  pica  as  its  basis. 

The  following  table  gives  the  sizes,  as  near  as 
they  can  be  expressed  in  decimals  of  the  American 
inch  and  the  French  metre,  of  the  American  point 
system  of  type-bodies,  as  they  were  adopted  by 
the  United  States  Type  Founders7  Association. 


The  American  Point  System         151 


Bodies. 

Size  in 
inches. 

Size  in  cen- 
timetres. 

No.  of  ems 
per  foot. 

No.  of  ems 
per  metre. 

1-point 

0.0138 

0.0351 

867.4699 

2845  7143 

IVfc-point  
2-point  
2^-point  
3-point  
3^-point  
4-point  

.0207 
.0277 
.0346 
.0415 
.0484 
.0553 

.0527 
.0703 
.0878 
.1054 
.1230 
.1406 

578.3132 
433.7349 
346.9880 
289.1566 
247.8486 
216.8675 

1897.1428 
1422.8572 
1138.2856 
948.5714 
813.0612 
711.4286 

4^-point  
5-point  
5Vfc-point  
6-point  

.0622 
.0692 
.0761 
.083 

.1581 
.1757 
.1933 
.2108 

192.7711 
173.4940 
157.7218 
144.5783 

632.3810 
569.1428 
517.4026 
474.2857 

7-point  
8-point  

.0968 
.1107 

.2460 
.2811 

123.9243 
108.4337 

406.5306 
355.7142 

9-point  
10-point  

.1245 
.1383 

.3163 
.3514 

96.3855 
86.7470 

316.1905 
284  5714 

11  -point 

.1522 

3865 

78.8609 

258  7013 

12-point  
1  4-point  

.166 
.1937 

.4217 
.4920 

72.2892 
61.9621 

237.1429 
203  2653 

1  5-point 

.2075 

.5271 

57  8313 

189  7143 

16-point  

.2213 

.5622 

54.2170 

177  8571 

18-point  

.249 

.6325 

48.1928 

158.0952 

20-point  
22-point  

.2767 
.3044 

.7028 
7730 

43.3735 
39.4304 

142.2857 
129  3506 

24-point 

.332 

8434 

36  1446 

118  5714 

28-point  
30-point  

.3874 
.415 

.9840 
1  0542 

30.9810 
28.9157 

101.6326 
94  8571 

32-point  

.4426 

1.1244 

27.1085 

88.9280 

3  6-point 

.498 

1  2651 

24  0964 

79  0476 

40-point  

.5534 

1  4056 

21  6867 

71  1428 

42-point  
44-point  

.581 
.6088 

1.4759 
1  5460 

20.6540 
19  7152 

67.7551 
64.6753 

48-point  . 

664 

1  6867 

18  0723 

59  2857 

5  4-point  .  . 

.747 

1  8975 

16  0642 

52  6984 

60-point  

.83 

2  1084 

14  4578 

47.4285 

72-point  

.996 

2.5301 

12.0482 

39.5238 

152        Basis  of  the  American  System 

The  methods  agreed  upon  by  the  United  States 
Type  Founders'  Association  for  the  purpose  of 
securing  uniformity  under  the  new  system  seem 
to  be  practically  satisfactory.  A  graduated  mea- 
suring rod  of  steel,  35  centimetres  or  83  picas  in 
length,  is  made  a  common  measure  for  all  bodies 
of  type.  It  does  not  appear,  however,  that  every 
type-founder  who  has  adopted  this  system  has 
ready  access  to  an  official  metre,  on  which  the 
measure  of  35  centimetres  depends.  Some  of  them 
seem  to  trust  the  testing  of  their  types  to  the 


A  gauge  for  type-bodies. 


This  gauge  or  smaller  measure 
consists  of  three  bars  of  steel 
accurately  fitted  and  firmly  con- 
nected as  is  shown  in  the  illus- 
tration. The  space  between  the 


pica,  36  bodies  of  brevier,  and  48 
bodies  of  nonpareil.  Of  the  inter- 
mediate sizes,  it  takes  26  bodies 
and  2  points  of  small-pica;  28 
bodies,  8  points  of  long-primer ; 


short  side  bars  is  exactly  288  32  bodies,  8  points  of  bourgeois ; 
points,  which  admits  24  bodies  of  42  bodies,  1  point  of  minion. 

smaller  measure.  It  has  been  claimed  that  there 
is  no  reason  why  an  official  metre  should  be  used, 
as  the  fixed  and  unalterable  length  of  the  metre 
can  be  determined  by  mathematical  calculation.1 

iThe   metre  is  the   ten-mil-    ridian  between  the  pole  and  the 
lionth  part  of  the  arc  of  a  me-    equator,  or  3.2808992  feet. 


Proposed  Change  of  Height          153 


The  measuring  rod  of  35  centimetres  was  also 
suggested  as  a  good  standard  for  determining  the 
height-to-paper  of  type.  By  this  plan  Proposed 
fifteen  type-heights  were  made  equal  to  change  of 
35  centimetres.  This  is  a  serious  devi-  ^P6'116^11* 
ation  from  the  old  standard  of  eleven-twelfths,  or 
.9166  of  an  inch.  One-fifteenth  of  35  centimetres 
is  .9186  of  an  inch.  The  difference  of  To^°o  o  or  5-00 
part  of  an  inch  may  seem  very  trivial,  but  it  is 
enough  to  prevent  the  use  of  the  different  heights 
in  the  same  line. 

Some  founders  claim  to  have  adhered  to  the  old 
standard  of  height  ;  others  have  adopted  the  new. 
Those  who  have  adopted  the  new  bodies  without 
a  special  refitting  of  all  their  old  matrices  are 
giving  to  printers  a  greater  annoyance  than  was 


A  gauge  for  height-to-paper. 


Types  can  be  tested  by  printers 
for  height-to-paper  by  this  sim- 
ple instrument  of  steel,  recently 
invented  by  Henry  Barth,  of  the 
Cincinnati  Type  Foundry.  The 
line  A  C  is  very  slightly  out  of 
parallel  with  the  line  B  D.  A 
type  of  proper  height  will  pass 
freely  in  the  channel  toward  the 
mark  E,  in  which  channel  it  is 
20 


held  straight  and  square  by  the 
movable  brass  H  that  slides  in  a 
slot.  The  type  that  stops  in  the 
channel  before  it  reaches  the  slot 
is  too  high ;  the  type  that  passes 
the  slot  or  the  mark  E  is  too 
low.  Type-founders  make  use  of 
a  more  complicated  instrument 
which  will  show  a  deviation  of 
less  than  3^s  inch. 


154          The  French  Point  too  Large 

ever  received  from  irregular  bodies.  Soon  after 
the  new  point  system  was  adopted,  complaints 
changes  were  heard  from  press-rooms  that  some 
in  height  types  were  high-to-paper.  The  fault  was 
injurious  noticeable  in  lines  in  which  were  sorts  of 
newly  cast  types.  Compositors  were  blamed  for 
a  bad  planing-down  of  forms,  and  electrotypers 
for  their  bad  moulding,  and  the  office  for  permit- 
ting a  mixture  of  old  type  with  new  sorts ;  but  a 
testing  of  the  unworn  type  of  the  first  casting  with 
those  that  were  newly  cast  plainly  showed  that  the 
real  fault  was  in  the  altered  standard  of  height. 

It  would  be  a  great  benefit  if  the  types  of  France, 
Germany,  and  America  were  uniform  as  to  body, 
Didot  point  so  that  types  bought  in  one  country 
is  too  large  could  fo  used  in  another.  The  United 
States  Type  Founders'  Association  considered  this 
question,  but  they  were  obliged  to  reject  the  French 
system :  the  Didot  point  was  too  large ;  it  made 
the  distance  between  bodies  too  great. 

To  adopt  the  Didot  point  would  have  compelled 
the  retirement  not  only  of  the  greater  part  of  the 
moulds  and  matrices  now  in  use,  but  also  the  re- 
cutting  of  new  punches  for  many  sizes.  It  would 
have  been  a  forsaking  of  the  better  for  the  worse ; 
a  rejection  of  a  system  of  convenient  divisions 
for  one  of  larger  divisions  that  were  not  as  con- 
venient. The  point  adopted  by  the  United  States 
Type  Founders' Association  is  .0351  +  centimetre. 
This  deviates  but  little  from  the  point  devised  in 


Origin  of  the  American  Point         155 


1737  by  Fournier,  the  true  inventor  of  the  point 
system.  The  point  substituted  by  Ambroise  Firmin- 
Didot  is  .0376  4-  centimetre,  eleven  points  of  which 
are  almost  as  large  as  twelve  American  points.1 

The  explanatory  diagram  which  follows  this  page 
is  from  the  foundry  of  the  MacKellar,  Smiths  & 
Jordan  Co.  It  may  be  accepted  as  an  official  rep- 
resentation of  the  bodies  of  the  American  system. 


1  In  the  Founder  system  1000 
points  make  35  centimetres ;  in 
the  American  system  996  points 
make  35  centimetres.  It  is  prob- 
able that  the  American  system, 
based  on  the  pica  of  the  Mac- 
Kellar,  Smiths  &  Jordan  Co., 
was  unwittingly  derived  from 
Fournier.  Thomas  says,  in  his 
"History  of  Printing  in  Amer- 
ica "  (vol.  i,  p.  29,  second  edi- 
tion), that  Benjamin  Franklin 
purchased  of  P.  S.  Fournier 
"the  materials  of  an  old  foun- 
dry," and  had  his  grandson, 
B.  F.  Bache,  instructed  in  the 
art  by  Fournier,  with  intent  to 
establish  an  extensive  foundry 
in  Philadelphia.  The  foundry 
so  established  did  not  thrive ; 
it  was  neglected  and  abandoned 
by  Bache,  but  after  Franklin's 
death  the  type-founding  tools 
became  the  property  of  his  rela- 
tive Duane,  who  kindly  offered 
to  lend  them  all  to  Binny  & 
Bonaldson,  then  the  only  foun- 
ders of  importance  in  that  city. 
Ronaldson  was  struck  with  their 
superiority,  and  fearing  that 
Duane  might  change  his  mind, 


at  once  got  a  wheelbarrow  and 
trundled  them  to  his  own  foun- 
dry. Binny  acknowledged  that 
he  received  many  valuable  sug- 
gestions from  these  tools.  With 
this  testimony  as  to  the  value 
of  the  tools,  added  to  our  know- 
ledge of  Franklin's  interest  in 
scientific  instruments  of  every 
kind,  it  may  be  assumed  that 
Fournier  sold  not  old  but  new 
tools,  and  that  he  had  provided 
everything  needed  to  establish 
his  point  system  in  America,  in 
the  equipment  which  he  fur- 
nished to  Bache.  There  can  be 
no  doubt  that  Binny  &  Ronald- 
son  had,  and  made  use  of,  the 
Fournier  mould  for  pica,  and 
that  the  standard  they  fixed  for 
this  body  was  accepted  by  their 
successors,  L.  Johnson  &  Co. 
and  the  MacKellar,  Smiths  & 
Jordan  Co.  The  slight  devia- 
tion from  the  Fournier  stan- 
dard of  four  points  in  one  thou- 
sand may  be  accepted  as  the 
consequence  of  unintended  and 
graduallyimperceptible  changes 
which  would  occur  after  a  long 
use  of  moulds  in  early  days. 


156 


American  Point  Bodies 


i 

ll 

00  I 


Three  Scientific  Systems  Contrasted  157 
Number  of  Ems  to  Linear  Foot. 


American  system. 

Bruce  system. 

Didot  system. 

3-point   .  289.15 

Body  3  270.23 

3  ^>'  -point.  247.84 

Body  3^.  .231.62 

4-point.  .  .216.86 

Diamond  201.58 

Body  4....  202.67 

4^-point.  192.77 

Pearl  179.59 

Body  4^..  180.14 

5  -point.  .  .173.49 

Agate  160. 

Body  5....  162.13 

5^  -point.  157.  72 
6-point...  144.57 
7-point  .  .  .  123.92 

Nonpareil  .  .  .  142.54 
Minion  126.99 

Body  5  ^..147.  38 
Body  6....  135.11 

8-point.  .  .108.43 

Brevier           113  13 

Body  6  1^..  124.72 

9-point.  .  .  96.38 
10-point...  86.74 
11-point...  78.86 

Bourgeois..  .100.79 
Long-primer    89.79 

Body  7....  115.81 
Body  7%..  108.09 
Body  8....  101.33 

12-point...  72.28 

Small-pica  .  .  80. 

Body  9  ....  90.07 

1  4-  -nmnt           fil  Qfi 

Pica  71.27 

T»     J        -i  rv              o-i    rk/-» 

j-Tt-puiiiL.  .  .    uj..yo 

Body  10.  ..  ol.Ob 

15-point.  .  .  57.83 

English            63  49 

"Rnrlv  1  1            73  fiQ 

-DOliy   J.JL  .  .  .    lO.Di7 

1  6-point...  54.21 

Columbian  .  .  56.56 

Body  12...  67.55 

1  8-point...  48.19 

Great-primer  50.39 

Body  13...  62.36 

20-point.  .  .  43.37 
22-point...  39.43 
24-point...  36.14 
2  8-point.  .  .  30.98 

Paragon  44.89 
Dbl.  sm.-pica  40. 
Double  pica  .  35.63 

Body  14...  57.90 
Body  16...  50.66 
Body  18...  45.03 

30-point.  .  .  28.91 

Dbl.  english  .  31.74 

Body  20...  40.53 

32-point...  27.10 

Dbl.  columb.   28.28 

Body  22...  36.84 

3  6-point.  .  .  24.09 
40-point.  .  .   21.68 

Dbl.  gt.-prim.  25.19 

Body  24...  33.77 
Body  26...  31.18 

42-point.  .  .  20.65 

Dbl.  paragon  22.44 

Body  32...  25.33 

44-point...  19.71 

Meridian  20. 

Body  40...  20.26 

48-point.  .  .   18.07 

Canon               17.81 

Body  48.  ..  16.89 

158         Proportions  of  English  Types 

The  bodies  of  English  types  have  been  changed 
since  they  were  reported  in  Savage's  Dictionary. l 

English  Sizes :  Ems  to  the  linear  foot. 2 


Sizes. 

Miller 
and 
Richard. 

Stephen- 
son  and 
Blake. 

Figgins. 

Caslon. 

Sir 
Charles 
Reed's 
Sons. 

Pica  

71% 

72 

72 

72 

72 

Small-pica  

83 

83 

83 

83-2 

83 

Long-primer  .... 

89 

89 

90 

89-5 

91 

Bourgeois  

102^ 

102^ 

102 

102 

102 

Brevier  

111  ~ 

111 

108^ 

111-3 

111 

Minion  

122 

123 

122 

122-4 

122 

Emerald  

138 

129 

128 

128-5 

128 

Nonpareil  

143 

144 

144 

144 

144 

Ruby-nonpareil  .  . 

160 

161 

160 

160 

Ruby  

166 

166 

166 

166 

Pearl  

178 

179 

183 

178-6 

181 

Diamond  

207 

204 

203 

204 

(Jem    

222 

Brilliant  

237 

Semi-nonpareil  .  . 

286 

288 

If  the  point  of  the  American  system  had  been 
based  on  the  plan  of  six  picas  to  the  inch,  it  is 
possible  that  English  and  American  bodies  could 
have  been  brought  to  agreement,  and  that  a  sys- 
tem of  points  on  this  basis  would  not  have  met 
with  any  determined  opposition  in  England. 


i  See  p.  128  of  this  work. 
2Qldfleld,  "Manual  of  Typog- 
raphy," p.  98.    He  says  that  the 


figures  given  in  this  table  were 
verified  for  its  own  type  by  each 
foundry  named  therein. 


The  American  Point  System          159 

This  American  point  system  has  been  adopted 
by  many  founders,  and  in  time  will  probably  sup- 
plant all  other  systems  in  America. 

A  I.LI  T_   -A.   -       £  j  An  improved 

Although  it  is  of  great  advantage  to  8y8tem  does 
the  printing  trade  to  get  more  uni-  not  insure 
formity,  too  much  has  been  expected  per 
from  this  point  system.  It  reduces  but  does  not  en- 
tirely prevent  irregularities.  That  it  will  ever  be  so 
perfect  that  types  of  the  same  body  from  different 
founders  can  unhesitatingly  be  mixed  and  used 
together  is  not  probable.  System  alone  is  not 
enough.  Perfection  in  theory  will  not  make  skill 
in  manufacture  a  matter  of  secondary  importance. 
Under  the  new  system  good  type-founding  will  ex- 
act as  much  watchfulness  as  ever.  The  irregular- 
ities that  are  caused  by  overheated  metal,  sprung 
or  untested  moulds,  or  careless  rubbing,  are  as 
possible  now  as  they  ever  were.  The  founder 
who  has  been  careless  under  the  old  system  will 
probably  be  equally  careless  under  the  new. 

The  advantages  that  may  accrue  from  uniform 
bodies  will  be  more  than  nullified  if  general  uni- 
formity in  height  is  not  secured.  If  some  type- 
founders continue  to  adhere  to  the  old  standard 
of  height,  while  others  attempt  to  introduce  the 
new,  without  a  careful  refitting  of  special  matrices 
to  the  new  moulds,  the  printing  trade  will  be  more 
damaged  than  benefited  by  the  change. 

Printers  can  test  their  types,  chiefly  as  to  body, 
but  also  as  to  height-to-paper,  by  means  of  the 


160  The  Use  of  the  Type-gauge 

type-gauge,  of  which  an  illustration  is  here  given. 
The  two  jaws  or  graduated  faces  are  very  slightly 
out  of  parallel,  at  an  angle  so  slender  as  to  be  un- 
perceived  until  they 
are  held  against  the 
light.  The  thumb- 
piece  allows  the  un- 
der jaw  to  be  ad- 
justed on  the  slide  to 
fit  any  body.  When 
set  to  the  proper  gauge,  a  type 
too  small  will  pass  in  it  beyond 
HOW  types  the  gauge  line;  a  type 
are  tested  too  large  will  not  reach  to 
the  gauge  line.  Type-founders  usu- 
ally test  the  distrusted  bodies  by  put- 
ting four  of  the  type-bodies  between 
the  jaws,  first  at  the  shoulder  and 
then  at  the  foot  of  the  types.  An  ex- 
ceedingly slight  inaccuracy  that  may 
escape  notice  on  one  body  will  be  de- 
tected when  four  bodies  are  together. 
One  of  the  advantages  claimed  for 
all  systems  of  typographic  points  is 
their  helpfulness  in  justifying.  But 
this  advantage  is  much  overrated. 
Quite  as  much  special  justification 
seems  to  be  done  in  French  as  in 
American  offices.  Unless  the  leads,  brass  rules, 
and  other  material  of  composition  are  true  frac- 


Type-gauge. 


Points  applied  to  Spaces  161 

tions  of  the  point,  this  facility  in  justification  is 
defeated.1  Those  who  have  experience  in  compo- 
sition, and  who  know  how  the  bodies  of  Old  types 
types,  leads,  and  rules  are  bent  and  thick-  difficult 
ened  by  usage,  by  dust,  rust,  and  imper-  toJU8tify 
feet  cleaning,  and  how  much  allowance  must  be 
made,  both  in  the  width  and  length  of  a  column 
or  page,  for  the  "  spring "  of  types  or  their  contrac- 
tion in  the  process  of  locking-up,  will  acknowledge 
that  types  do  not  combine  in  practice  as  easily  as 
in  theory. 

In  the  composition  of  algebraic  work,  the  point 
system  is  helpful.  A  twelve-to-pica  lead  will  make 
justification  between  proximate  bodies  New  8y8tem 
of  ordinary  size.  It  is  not  enough  to  is  helpful 
secure  exact  justification  in  the  compo-  ] 
sition  of  good  book  and  job  work ;  where  two  sizes 
have  to  be  used  together  exact  lining  is  required, 
but  this  is  rarely  accomplished  by  the  use  of  the 
twelve-to-pica  lead.  For  the  justification  of  the 
proximate  sizes  smaller  than  nonpareil,  a  twenty- 
four-to-pica  is  required,  for  which  thickness  there 
are  no  leads.  The  compositor  will  have  to  justify 
these  bodies,  as  he  did  before,  with  strips  of  paper 
and  cardboard. 

The  point  system,  or  a  modification  of  it,  has 
been  applied  to  the  set  or  width  of  types.  The 
inventors  of  various  forms  of  type-writing  ma- 

1  The  "  Scale  of  Prices  "  of  the     and  1878  contains  many  articles 
Parisian   compositors  for  1868     that  price  special  justification. 
21 


162  "Self-spacing"  Types 

chines  had  previously  discovered  the  importance 
of  types  that  were  of  one  width.  The  first  practi- 
Points  ap-  ca^  attempt  at  systematic  uniformity  in 
piled  to  the  the  set  of  printing  types  was  made  in 
set  of  type  Ig8^  «by  Benton?  Waldo  &  Co.,  type- 

f ounders  at  Milwaukee,  who  introduced  the  system 
as  that  of  "self -spacing"  types.  Their  plan  was  to 
put  every  type,  on  all  the  bodies  from  agate  to 
pica  inclusive,  on  some  set  which  was  an  even  di- 
vision of  the  standard  pica  em.  These  divisions 
varied  according  to  size  of  body,  from  an  eighth 
to  a  thirteenth  of  the  pica  em.  The  object  sought 
was  the  quickening  of  composition  by  providing 
better  facilities  for  spacing.  As  a  composed  line 
of  types  and  spaces  made  on  this  system  is  but 
a  combination  of  the  regular  divisions  of  pica,  it 
was  claimed  that  the  types  so  composed  must  end 
evenly  on  every  line,  and  thereby  prevent  much  of 
the  trouble  of  spacing. 

In  placing  the  characters  of  the  font  on  even 
divisions  of  the  pica,  many  difficulties  were  met. 
Defects  of  The  form  of  one  character  might  be  too 
the  system  narrow  f  or  one  set  but  the  next  might 
be  too  wide.  The  alternatives  were  to  give  this 
character  a  too  broad  or  a  too  narrow  set,  or  to 
recut  the  punch  so  as  to  keep  the  character  on  the 
prescribed  set.  The  result  of  the  earlier  experi- 
ments was  not  satisfactory :  the  general  effect  of 
the  composed  types  was  that  of  neglected  fitting. 
Later  efforts  at  improvement  have  removed  many 


Spaces  on  Point  Sets 


163 


of  the  earlier  infelicities,  but  the  publishers  and 
printers  who  are  critical  do  not  accept  the  "  self- 
spacing77  types  as  proper  models  of  form.  More 
improvement  is  needed,  but  there  is  every  reason 
to  believe  that  this  improvement  can  be  made. 

The  advantages  of  "self -spacing"  types  to  com- 
positors are  beyond  question ;  the  new  method 
largely  reduces  the  labor  of  spacing. 

The  Point  System  applied  to  Spaces.1 


Bodies. 

Six- 
to-em 
space. 

Five- 
to-em 
space. 

Four- 
to-em 
space. 

Three- 
to-em 
space. 

Patent 
space. 
T55ofem. 

En 
quad- 
rats. 

Em 
quad- 
rats. 

5-point  .  . 

1 

'•Ha 

*2 

212 

5 

S^-point 

*1 

*H2 

*2 

*212 

*3 

512 

6-point  .  . 

1 

1*2 

2 

*212 

3 

6 

7-point  .  . 

»1 

*H2 

*2 

*2l2 

*3 

312 

7 

8-point  .  . 

•1 

"I1* 

2 

*212 

*3 

4 

8 

9-point.  . 

1*2 

*2 

*2l2 

3 

*312 

412 

9 

10-point.. 

*H2 

2 

2la 

*3 

*4 

5 

10 

1  1  -point 

*2 

*2l2 

*3 

*3l2 

*4l2 

512 

11 

12  -point.  . 

2 

*212 

3 

4 

*5 

6 

12 

14-point.  . 

*2 

*3 

*4 

*5 

*6 

7 

14 

1  8-point  . 

*2 

*3 

*4 

6 

9 

18 

The  Central  Type  Foundry  of  St.  Louis  have 
proposed  to  apply  the  point  system  to  spaces  only, 
by  putting  every  space  of  every  body  on  spaces  on 
the  set  of  one  point  or  on  the  multiples  Point  set8 
of  the  point.  As  the  point  is  but  about  Y1^  and  the 

i  "  Price-list  of  Central  Type  Foundry,"  p.  5. 


164  Spaces  on  Point  Sets 

half  point  about  T^  of  an  inch,  the  divisions  are 
sufficiently  minute.  Rigid  adherence  to  this  sys- 
tem will  compel  the  making  of  some  new  widths 
of  spaces,  and  possibly  in  some  fonts  the  making 
of  figures  on  new  sets,  but  spaces  on  point  sets 
will  be  a  valuable  aid  to  justification,  especially  in 
the  narrow  columns  of  table-work. 

The  changes  from  the  old  sets  now  in  use  are 
marked  in  the  table  with  a  *. 

The  patent  space  is  intended  to  be  the  interme- 
diate between  a  three-to-em  space  and  an  en  quad- 
rat— or  about  five-twelfths  of  the  em  body.  It  has 
been  in  use  for  years  in  some  large  book  offices. 

The  only  en  quadrat  changed  is  that  of  the  5J- 
point,  which  is  made  a  trifle  thicker.  This  should 
compel  the  putting  of  figures  on  a  set  of  the  same 
thickness  or  the  retention  of  the  en  quadrat  of  the 
old  form. 


IV 


A  Font  of  Type 

|  FONT  of  type  is  a  complete  collec- 
tion, with  a  proper  apportionment  to 
each  character,  of  the  mated  types 
required  for  an  ordinary  text.  The 
letters  are  in  unequal  request :  a  and 
6  appear  repeatedly  in  long  sentences;  Z  and  C[ 
may  not  be  found  in  a  page.  The  type-founder 
tries  to  supply  each  character  in  proportion  to  its 
frequency  of  use,  so  that  the  printer  shall  have 
enough  of  every  and  not  too  much  of  any  character. 
The  written  or  printed  summary  of  the  proper 
quantity  of  types  for  each  character  is  known  in 
the  United  States  as  a  scheme,  and  in  A  scheme 
Great  Britain  as  a  bill,  of  type.  For  large  of  **** 
metal  types,  or  for  wood  types  that  are  used  only 
for  single  lines  of  display,  the  scheme  is  made  by 
a  count  of  the  characters,  as  may  be  seen  in  the 

165 


166 


A  Scheme  for  Wood  Type 


122 

104 

Letters. 

Letters. 

5-A 

5-a 

Capital.. 

Lower-case. 

A     5 

a      5 

B      3 

b      3 

C      4 

c      4 

D     4 

d      4 

E      6 

e       6 

F      3 

f      3 

a    3 

g      3 

H      4 

h      4 

I       5 

i       5 

J      3 

J       2 

K      2 

k      2 

L      6 

1       5 

M     4 

m      4 

N      5 

n      5 

O      5 

o      5 

P      3 

P      3 

Q     2 

q      2 

R      5 

r       5 

8      6 

s      5 

T      5 

t      5 

U      4 

u      4 

V      3 

v      3 

W     3 

w      3 

X      2 

x      2 

Y      3 

y    3 

Z      2 

z       2 

&      2 

ffi      1 

.       4 

03        1 

,       4 

fi      1 

;     2 

fl      1 

:       2 

ff      1 

-       1 

ffi     1 

'        2 

ffl      1 

!       3 

M  and  CE  are 

seldom  provided. 

annexed  scheme  for  a  5-A  and 
5-a  font  of  wood  type : 

Figures  are  not  provided  for 
all  fonts  of  large  type.  When 
provided,  they  are  furnished  for 
a  5-a  font  in  the  proportion  of 
two  types  each  of  characters  2, 
3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  $;  three  types 
for  figure  1 ;  five  types  for  fig- 
ure 0.  Fonts  of  3-A  are  some- 
times made  for  very  large  types, 
but  for  ordinary  types  the  5-A 
font  is  the  smallest. 

The  font  of  5-A,  with  figures, 
has  two  hundred  and  fifty  char- 
acters, but  it  seldom  happens 
that  more  than  fifty  of  them  can 
be  used  at  one  time.  If  these 
fifty  letters  contain  six  of  E  and 
five  of  A,  no  more  lines  can  be 
set  that  call  for  A  or  E.  But 
the  provision  in  the  scheme  for 
two  hundred  other  characters  is 
necessary;  some  of  them  or  all 
of  them  will  be  needed  on  other 
work  or  at  another  time.  In 
fonts  of  metal  type  of  large 
sizes,  and  in  all  fonts  of  dis- 
play letter,  the  schemes  do  not 
include  spaces  or  quadrats. 


Scheme  for  a  Job  Font 


167 


Wood  types  are  sold  at  a 
fixed  price  for  every  letter  ; 
metal  types  at  a  fixed  price  by 
the  pound. 

For  larger  fonts  of  wood 
type  or  jobbing  letter,  different 
apportionments  are  made,  as  is 
shown  in  the  annexed  scheme 
for  a  36-A  and  70-a  font. 

In  the  United  States  the  ap- 
portionment of  each  character 
in  fonts  intended  for  book  or 
newspaper  work  is  made  by 
weight.  In  Great  Britain  the 
apportionment  is  made,  nom- 
inally at  least,  by  a  count  of 
characters. 

The  apportionment  of  char- 
acters is  necessarily  varied  for 
characters  Different  languages, 
are  used  The  English  printer 

unequally      who  buys   ft  Frencll 

font  of  type  soon  discovers  its 
deficiency  of  k  and  W,  and  its 
excess  of  C[  and  '.  The  French 
printer  who  bought  an  Eng- 
lish font  would  object  to  the 
excess  of  the  k  and  W,  and  the 
deficiency  of  the  q  and  '.  Ital- 
ian calls  for  a  larger  supply  of 


70-a. 

36-A. 

a  70 

A  36 

b  28 

B  15 

c  37 

0  24 

d  42 

D  19 

e  92 

E  43 

f   28 

F  17 

S  24 

G  17 

h  47 

H  19 

i   70 

I   36 

j   14 
k  14 

J   9 
K   9 

1   47 

L  24 

m  37 

M  19 

n  70 

N  36 

o  70 

O  36 

p  28 

P  19 

q  10 

a  e 

r   70 

B  36 

s   70 

S  36 

t   70 

T  36 

u  37 

U  19 

v  14 

V   9 

w  28 

W  15 

x  10 

X   6 

y  28 

Y  15 

z   10 

Z   6 

83    5 

&   6 

oe   5 

JE  3 

fi   8 

(E  3 

ff   8 

1   16 

fl   5 

2  12 

ffi   5 

3  12 

ffl   5 

4  12 

,   37 

5  12 

;   5 

6  12 

:    5 

7  12 

.   37 

8  12 

8 

9  12 

'   10 

0  16 

!    5 

?   8 

$  10 

£   3 

168  Object  of  the  Scheme 

C  and  Z;  Spanish,  for  more  of  d,  t,  and  all  the 
vowels;  Latin,  for  more  of  C,  m,  n,  "Q,  and  q. 
For  any  language  but  English  the  scheme  of  the 
American  or  English  type-founder  is  unsuitable. 

The  scheme  is  not,  and  cannot  be,  nicely  adapted 
to  every  kind  of  literary  composition  in  English. 
For  poetry  there  must  be  a  large  excess  of  quad- 
rats ;  for  the  personal  narrative,  an  excess  of  I ; 
for  tables  or  statistics,  an  excess  of  figures;  for 
dictionaries  and  catalogues,  an  excess  of  capitals, 
signs,  and  points.  Even  in  plain  descriptive  mat- 
ter, apparently  free  from  any  peculiarity,  the  com- 
positor will  note  that  a  latinized  style  will  use  an 
excess  of  one  kind  of  sorts,  and  a  colloquial  style 
an  excess  of  other  sorts.  For  peculiar  work  the 
printer  must  select  and  order  an  excess  of  the 
characters  that  are  most  needed. 

The  object  of  the  scheme  is  so  to  apportion  each 
character  that  all  the  types  in  the  font  may  be  set 
Object  of  out  of  case,  leaving  no  surplus.  This  ob- 
a  scheme  jec^  is  never  attained.  When  a  compositor 
reports  that  a  new  font  of  text-type  has  been  set 
out,  as  a  rule  about  one-third  of  the  weight  of  the 
font  remains  unused  in  case.  The  purchase  and 
use  of  more  of  the  deficient  characters  may  reduce 
the  surplus  to  one-fourth — perhaps  one-fifth — but 
it  is  not  probable  that  it  can  ever  be  made  any  less. 
There  will  always  be  a  large  surplus.  It  follows  that 
the  printer  must  provide  from  one-fourth  to  one- 
half  more  type  than  he  can  put  to  use  at  one  time. 


General  Agreement  of  Schemes        169 

Schemes  are  not  exactly  alike  in  all  foundries, 
but  they  are  in  substantial  agreement :  the  propor- 
tion of  capitals  to  lower-case,  and  the  supply  of 
figures,  italic,  and  quadrats  do  not  seriously  differ. 

A  so-called  complete  font  of  roman  and  italic 
type  is  supposed  to  have  these  characters : 

Roman a  to  z  and  8B  03  fi  ff  m  fl  ffl 33 

Roman  points '.,;:->!?([ 10 

Roman  figures  and  money  signs,    1234567890$£  12 

Spaces  and  quadrats  — 1 1 1 1 1  •  ••  •§• 8 

References *  t  t  H  IT  1^ 7 

Braces r-^ — \  ~*^  <-*~^^ 5 

Dashes 4 

Leaders 4 

Fractions %  %  %%  %  %  %  %  % 9 

Roman  capitals A  to  Z  and  M  (E  & 29 

Roman  small  capitals  .  .A  to  z  and  M  CE  &    29 

Italic  lower-case a  to  z  and  ce  ce  fi  ff  ffi  ffl  fl 33 

Italic  capitals A  to  Z  and  M  CE  # 29 

Italic  points ;•'•'?( 5 

Accents,  a  a  a  a  a  e"  e  e  e    iiii  6660  liuuii  cnN 

N    d  a  d  a  a  e  e  3  e  ilii  6060  tiuuu  $nN..  25 

Other  marks ©ff.lfe0' 5 

Spanish  marks ao$)liy«f- 6 

Number  of  characters 253 

The  actual  weight  of  the  so-called  one-thousand- 
pound  font  is  in  excess  of  one  thousand  pounds ; 
but  it  is  made  so  purposely  by  the  addition  of 
sorts  that  can  be  omitted  if  the  purchaser  desires. 
The  supply  of  italic,  quadrats,  spaces,  or  any  other 

sort  can  also  be  increased. 
22 


170 


A  Thousand-pound  Font 


Scheme  for  one  thousand  pounds  of  roman  and 
italic  as  made  by  George  Bruce's  Son  &  Co. 


Roman 
lower-case. 

Roman 
capitals. 

Points. 

Italic 
lower-case. 

Ibs.  oz. 

Ibs.  oz. 

Ibs.  oz. 

Ibs.  oz. 

a  ..  37 

A   ..  5 

,    ..10 

a    ..  5 

b  ..  10 

B   .  .  3  12 

;    ..  2    8 

&    .  .   1    4 

c  ..  17 

C    .  .  3  12 

:    .  .  1  14 

c    ..  2    6 

d  ..  25 

D  .  .  3  12 

.    ..  5 

d    ..  3    2 

e  ..  57 

E   ..  5 

-    ..  5 

e    ..  6    4 

f   ..  11    4 

F   .  .  3  12 

9    .  .  1  14 

/  .  -   1  14 

g  .  .  11    4 

G  .  .  3  12 

!    ..       10 

g  .  •  i  14 

h  .  .  32    8 

H  .  .  3  12 

?   ..       10 

h    ..  4    6 

i    ..  25 

I     ..  2    8 

(    ..       10 

i    ..  3    2 

j    -  •     1  14 
k  .  .     3  12 

J    .  .  1  14 
K  .  .   1  14 

[            10 

Jf   ...         7 

fc    ..       10 

1    ..  12    8 

L   .  .  3  12 

I    .  .  1  14 

m..  25 

M  .  .  3  12 

m  ..  3    2 

n  ..  37 

N  .  .  3  12 

n    ..  5 

o  ..  37 

O   .  .  3  12 

Figures. 

o    ..  4    6 

p  .  .  11    4 

P   .  .  3  12 

1         ^ 

J)  .  .  1  14 

q  ..     4 
T   ..  25 
s   ..  30 
t    ..  31 

u  ..  18    4 

v  ..     7    8 

O   .  .  1  14 
B  .  .  3  12 
S    .  .  3  12 
T   ..  5 
U  ..  2    8 
V  .  .  1  14 

J-     .  .     O 

2  ..  4    6 
3   .  .   3  12 
4  .  .  3  12 
5  .  .  3  12 
6  ..  3    2 

7q      9 

g   ..       10 

r    .  .  3  12 
s    ..  4    4 
t    ..  4    4 
w    .  .  2  10 

v    ..  1    4 

w..  15    8 

W  .  .  3  12 

.  .     O       Zi 

w  .  .   2    8 

x  .  .     1  14 
y  ..  11    4 

X  ..       10 

Y  ..  2    8 

8   .  .   3    2 
9  ..  3    2 

OK 

x    ••         7 
y    .  .   1  14 

z  .  .     1  14 

Z    ..       10 

•  .     O 

$-1             A 

1    ..         7 

se  ..        10 
ce  ..        10 

M..        6 
(E..         6 

.  .    1     4 
£..       10 

*"..         4 

(K    ..            4 

fi  .  .     3  12 

&  .  .  1  14 

^  ..       14 

ff    .    2    8 

#..       14 

ffi..     2    8 

ff"       14 

fl  .  .     1  14 

Quadrats. 

Spaces. 

^  ..       10 

ffl  .  .     1  14 

n     .  .  20 

3m..  60 

#..     10 

m    ..   13 

4m..  15 

2m..  44    8 

5m..  8    4 

3m  .  .  44    8 

hair.   1  14 

A  Thousand-pound  Font 


171 


Scheme  for  one  thousand  pounds  of  roman  and 
italic  as  made  ~by  George  Bruce's  Son  &  Co. 


Italic 
capitals. 

References. 

Small 
capitals. 

Roman 
accents. 

Italic 
accents. 

oz. 

IDS.  oz. 

oz. 

oz. 

oz. 

A  ..   18 

*     ..         7 

A    ..    18 

a    ..   10 

d   ..     4 

B  ..   14 

t                7 

B    .  .    14 

a    ..   14 

d   ..     4 

C  ..  14 

t     ••         7 

c    ..  14 

a      .   14 

d   .  .     4 

D  ..  14 

||     ..         7 

D    ..    14 

a    ..     4 

a   ..     4 

E  ..  18 

$     -.         7 

E     ..    18 

e    ..   14 

*  ..    4 

F  ..  14 

ir  ••     7 

F     ..    14 

e    ..  10 

d   ..     4 

G  ..  14 

I^3         14 

G    ..    14 

e    ..  12 

*  ..    4 

H..   14 

H    ..    14 

e    ..     4 

e           4 

I   ..   10 

Braces. 

I    ..   10 

i      .     7 

f    ,,     4 

,7  ..     7 

/-  ..         4 

J    ..     7 

i      .     4 

i    ..     4 

JL  ..     7 

-^-  .  .         4 

K    ..      7 

i    ..     4 

1    ..     4 

i  ..  14 

-N      ..                  4 

L     ..    14 

i    ..     4 

•i    ..     4 

M..  14 

2m..  1    4 

M    ..    14 

6    ..  10 

o    ..     4 

.y..  14 

3m..   1    4 

N    ..    14 

6    ..     4 

o    ..     4 

O  ..  14 

0   ..  14 

6    ..     4 

o    ..     4 

P  ..  14 

Dashes. 

p   ..  14 

6    ..     4 

o    .  .     4 

£         7 

n     ..         6 

Q   ..     7 

ft.,  10 

&   .  .     4 

1..   14 

m    .  .   2    8 

R  .  .  14 

u   ..     4 

w   .  .     4 

£  ..   14 

2m  .  .  2    8 

s    ..   14 

u   .  .  10 

w   ..     4 

r  .    is 

3m  .  .  2    8 

T    ..    18 

ii   ..     4 

$   .  .     4 

17..   10 

F..     7 

Leaders. 

u  ..   10 

v  ..     7 

9    ..     4 
n   ..     6 

C    .-     4 

n  ..   4 

IF..   14 

n     ..   1    4 

w  ..  14 

N  ..     4 

^.       4 

X    .     4 

m    ..  2    8 

x  ..     4 

N    ..      4 

a   ..     4 

r..  10 

2m  .  .  5 

Y    ..    10 

a    .  .   10 

#   .  .     4 

Z     .     4 

3m..  7    8 

z    ..     4 

6    ..  10 

A   '  •     4 

^.  .     4 

M          4- 

a   .  .     4 

CB!'.   4 

Fractions. 

-/fii    .  .        rr 

(E  ..      4 

4-  ..    6 

i     .  .       14 

&          6 

i     ..       14 

Spanish 

Italic 

f     ..       14 

Commer- 

marks. 

points. 

i     -.         7 

cial  marks. 

a    ..   10 

;    ..     8 

f    -:        7 

®  ..   20 

6    ..   10 

:    ..     8 

i     ..        7 

$..20 

|)   ..  20 

/    ..     4 

t     ..        7 

ft  ..  20 

R  ..  20 

f    ..     4 

f     ..         7 

0  ..   10 

y  ..  20 

r  ••  4 

1     ••'       7 

'    ..   10 

«f  ..   20 

172        Accents  Not  Always  Provided 

The  full  font  of  roman  text-type  as  provided 
by  the  founder  is  always  accompanied  with  italic, 
characters  which  should  be  of  the  same  face  or  style 
deficient  as  the  roman.  The  apportionment  for 
italic  does  not  give  as  many  characters 
as  for  the  roman.  Small  capitals  for  italic  are 
made  only  to  order.  Figures,  fractions,  references, 
and  some  of  the  points  of  the  roman  serve  for  the 
italic.  Italic  figures  are  furnished  to  some  fonts 
by  some  foundries,  but  only  on  special  order. 

All  the  characters  specified  are  furnished  by  the 
larger  foundries  with  every  entire  font  of  roman 
Characters  ^rom  agate  to  pica.  In  english  and  sizes 
deficient  above,  many  of  the  minor  sorts  and  all 
m  roman  ^  accen^s  are  omitted.  For  sizes  above 
great-primer,  small  capitals  are  not  provided.  Bril- 
liant has  no  small  capitals,  or  fractions,  or  accents, 
and  few  of  the  minor  sorts.  Although  rated  as 
complete,  the  regular  font  of  roman  has  no  accents 
for  roman  capitals  or  small  capitals,  and  none  for 
italic  capitals,  which  are  furnished  only  to  order, 
in  small  quantities  of  one  or  two  ounces  to  each 
character. 

The  list  includes  all  the  characters  needed  for 
ordinary  work,  but  for  foreign  languages,  or  for 
Accents  are  scientific  books,  other  characters  must 
not  always  be  used.  All  educational  works  require 
a  large  list  of  long  and  short  vowels; 
dictionaries,  a  large  number  of  diacritical  marks, 
most  of  which  have  to  be  designed  and  cut  to 


Accents  and  Fractions  173 

order;  Portuguese,  Danish  and  other  languages 
have  peculiar  marks  which  must  also  be  made  to 
order.  As  a  rule,  even  the  ordinary  accents  are 
to  be  had  only  in  the  larger  foundries. 

The  number  of  characters  in  this  scheme  is  253, 
but  if  characters  were  furnished  for  all  the  accents 
of  foreign  languages,  for  the  signs  and  Accents  and 
marks  used  in  dictionaries,  and  books  signs  of  but 
about  mathematics,  chemistry,  bibliog-  limited  use 
raphy,  astronomy,  etc.,  the  number  might  exceed 
five  hundred.  No  type-founder  pretends  to  keep 
these  peculiar  characters  for  every  font ;  probably 
no  printer  has  a  complete  assortment  of  all  of 
them  for  any  one  font. 

For  the  sizes  between  and  including  pica  and 
nonpareil  small  separate  fonts  of  accents,  for  the 
French  and  Spanish  languages  only,  are  kept  in 
stock  by  the  leading  type-foundries.  It  should  be 
noted  that  these  fonts  are  for  lower-case  only,  and 
do  not  include  the  long  and  short  vowel  accents. 
Few  founders  have  accents  for  agate  or  smaller 
bodies  or  for  english  and  larger  bodies. 

Fractions  on  the  en-body  are  usually  furnished 
with  roman  fonts  from  pearl  to  pica,  inclusive. 
They  are  rarely  provided  for  larger  and  scheme  of 
smaller  bodies  of  type.  Fractions  on  the  fractions 
em  body,  mostly  used  in  newspapers,  are  usually 
made  of  the  smaller  sizes  only,  by  this  scheme : 

%     %%%%%%%% 
50      50      40      25      25      25      20      20      20 


174  Space  Occupied  by  Type 

Piece  fractions,  or  split  fractions  in  two  pieces, 
or  on  two  bodies,  are  not  proper  parts  of  the  font, 
and  are  sold  in  separate  fonts  at  higher  rates. 

Superiors  of  figures  or  of  letters,  like  ]  or  a,  are 
furnished  only  to  order.  These  also  are  not  con- 
superior  sidered  as  proper  parts  of  the  font.  The 
characters  firsfc  figures  or  letters  of  these  superiors 
are  furnished  in  great  excess  because  they  are  most 
used.  Superiors  and  piece  fractions  are  made  only 
for  the  larger  sizes. 

When  a  font  of  new  type  has  been  put  in  case, 
it  should  be  set  up  until  one  sort  is  exhausted.  If 
after  composition  there  be  left  in  case  a  large  sur- 
plus, a  list  of  the  characters  most  needed  should  be 
ordered  from  the  founder  to  make  the  assortment 
even.  But  after  a  repeated  re-sorting  of  the  cases 
it  will  always  be  found  that  a  large  surplus  is 
unavoidably  left. 

One  pound  of  metal  type,  as  packed  and  sold  by 
type-founders,  covers  a  space  of  about  three  and 
space  occu-  six-tenths  square  inches.  To  find  the 
pied  by  type  weight  of  one  page  of  type l  composed 
in  high  spaces,  divide  its  number  of  square  inches 
by  the  figures  3.6.  To  find  the  weight  of  a  font 
required  to  compose  a  given  number  of  pages, 
provision  must  be  made  for  a  large  surplusage  of 

1  Example.    This  page  is  set  were  composed  with  low  spaces 

up  with  high  spaces  and  leads  :  and  leads,  the  weightwould.be  a 

it  contains    15    square  inches,  trifle  less.     Changes  in  sizes  of 

which  divided  by  3.6  shows  a  type  make  but  little  difference 

weight  of   4.27   pounds.    If  it  in  the  weight  per  square  inch. 


How  Weights  are  Calculated         175 

types.  The  proportion  of  this  surplus  is  variable. 
For  a  small  font,  the  type-founder's  rule  is  to  add 
one-half  to  the  computed  weight  of  the  A  surplus 
composed  types.  For  a  font  of  two  thou-  is  needed 
sand  pounds  or  more,  this  surplus  need  not  be 
relatively  as  great ;  an  addition  of  one-fourth  to 
the  weight  of  the  composed  matter  may  be  enough. 
All  calculations  of  this  kind  are  but  guesses.  No 
printer  or  type-founder  can  exactly  foresee  how 
unequally  copy  yet  to  be  written  will  exhaust  sorts. 

For  all  work  that  has  to  be  done  in  haste,  for 
newspapers  and  magazines  that  have  to  keep  in 
type  postponed  articles  or  alternated  How  weights 
advertisements,  a  font  of  twice  the  of  fonts  are 
weight  of  the  composed  matter  will  calculated 
not  be  enough.  Morning  newspapers  that  fre- 
quently issue  supplements  of  four  or  more  pages, 
and  that  keep  in  type  large  quantities  of  matter, 
determine  the  size  of  the  fonts  by  the  number  of 
their  compositors,  allowing  three,  six,  and  some- 
times ten  days'  supply  of  type  to  each  compositor. 
Quadrats  are  the  sorts  most  frequently  deficient 
in  the  ordinary  font  when  it  is  applied  to  general 
book -work.  Next  in  liability  to  excessive  demand 
are  figures,  which  are  soon  exhausted  by  a  series 
of  tables.  Every  large  book  or  newspaper  office 
doubles,  and  sometimes  quadruples,  the  amount 
apportioned  to  some  characters  of  the  scheme. 

A  large  and  well-sorted  font  is  always  economi- 
cal as  to  service.  It  enables  a  master  printer  to  com- 


176 


Capacity  of  Different  Fonts 


plete  work  quickly  without  delays  or  stoppages  for 
sorts.  It  wears  better.  One  font  of  one  thousand 
pounds  will  give  more  service  than  two  fonts  of 
five  hundred  pounds  bought  and  used  successively. 
The  following  table  gives  the  probable  capacity 
of  fonts  of  different  weights  when  used  for  plain 
descriptive  matter  that  does  not  call  for  an  extra 
supply  of  peculiar  sorts : 

The  number  of  solid  pages  that  may  be  composed 
with  fonts  of  different  weights. 


Allow 
for  sur- 
plus in 
cases. 

Weight 
of 
font. 

Square 
inches 
of  com- 
posi- 
tion. 

Page  of 
40 

square 
inches. 

Page  of 
30 

square 
inches. 

Page  of 
25 

square 
inches. 

Page  of 
20 

square 
inches. 

Page  of 
15 

square 
inches. 

40 

100 

216 

5.40 

7.20 

8.64 

10.80 

14.44 

70 

200 

468 

11.70 

15.60 

18.72 

23.40 

31.20 

100 

300 

720 

18.00 

24.00 

28.80 

36.00 

48.00 

133 

400 

861 

21.52 

28.70 

34.40 

43.04 

57.40 

160 

500 

1164 

29.10 

38.80 

46.40 

58.20 

77.60 

180 

600 

1512 

37.80 

50.40 

60.48 

75.60 

100.80 

225 

750 

1890 

47.25 

63.00 

75.60 

94.50 

126.00 

300 

1000 

2520 

63.00 

84.00 

100.80 

126.00 

168.00 

375 

1500 

4050 

102.25 

135.00 

162.00 

204.50 

270.00 

500 

2000 

5400 

135.00 

180.00 

216.00 

270.00 

360.00 

Favored  by  suitable  copy,  one  may  compose 
more  pages  than  are  specified  in  these  calcula- 
tions, but  it  is  unsafe  to  plan  on  the  probability 
of  a  greater  production.  For  copy  that  has  appar- 


Composition  Extended  by  Leads      177 

ently  but  a  slight  excess  of  figures,  small  capitals, 
italic,  or  quadrats,  tlie  fonts  will  not  compose  the 
number  of  pages  specified  in  the  foregoing  table. 

One  pound  of  type  composed  solid  contains  in  ems : 

Pica,  or  12-point 131  Nonpareil,  or  6-point. . .  524 

Small-pica,  or  11-point .  155  Agate,  or  5  ^ -point 620 

Long-primer,  or  10-point  188  Pearl,  or  5-point 752 

Bourgeois,  or  9-point. . .  233  Diamond,  or  4^-point. .  932 

Brevier,  or  8 -point 294  Brilliant,  or  4-point 1176 

Minion,  or  7-point 384 

The  capacity  of  a  font  is  largely  extended  by 
the  use  of  leads.  One  pound  of  low  leads,  standing 
upright  as  they  do  in  composed  mat-  composition 
ter,  occupies  a  space  of  about  4  square  extended  by 
inches;  one  pound  of  stereotype  or  high  use( 
leads  occupies  a  space  of  not  less  than  3J  square 
inches.  To  find  the  weight  of  leads  required  to 
fill  a  defined  vacant  space,  divide  the  square  inches 
of  that  space  by  the  figure  4  for  low  leads,  and 
3J  for  high  leads.  The  thickness  of  the  leads  for 
this  purpose  must  be  determined  by  a  count  of  the 
composed  lines.  The  addition  of  a  six-to-pica  lead 
in  a  composition  of  pica  increases  the  amount  of 
composed  matter  one-sixth ;  in  a  composition  of 
nonpareil,  one-third ;  in  any  composition  from  in- 
termediate sizes  of  type,  the  increase  is  by  inter- 
mediate fractions. 

The  weight  of  six-to-pica  leads  needed  for  one 
thousand  ems  that  have  already  been  composed 
23 


178  The  Weight  of  Leads 

solid  in  the  copy  to  be  reprinted  will  vary  with 
different  sizes  of  type,  as  is  specified  in  the  follow- 
ing table.  The  weights  given  are  in  ounces : 


Pica* 19  Minion 

Small-pica 16^  Nonpareil 

Long-primer 15^  Agate 

Bourgeois 13^  Pearl 

Brevier 13  Diamond 


The  weights  of  the  six-to-pica  leads  in  one  thou- 
sand ems  of  leaded  composition  are,  in  ounces : 

Pica  2 16^  Minion 9 

Small-pica 14  Nonpareil 8^ 

Long-primer 12^  Agate 7 

Bourgeois 11  Pearl 6 

Brevier 10^  Diamond 5^ 

The  lead  most  used  is  of  the  thickness  six-to- 
pica.  For  the  larger  sizes  of  long-primer,  small- 
The  leads  in  pica,  and  pica,  two  of  these  leads  are 
greatest  use  often  used  when  it  is  desired  to  produce 
the  appearance  of  greater  clearness  or  elegance. 
For  bourgeois,  brevier,  minion,  and  nonpareil,  the 
eight-to-pica  lead  is  more  freely  used.  For  sizes 

l  To  find  the  weight  of  six-to-  2  To  find  the  weight  of  leads 

pica  leads  required  for  20  pages  required  for  100  pages  of  pica, 

of  solid  pica  of  1200  ems  each :  20  each  page  containing  800  ems : 

pages  X 1200  ems =24, 000  ems  X  800  ems  are  four-fifths  of  1000 

19  =  456  ounces,  or  28^  pounds,  ems,    and    four-fifths    of    16^z 

Theadditionof  leads  expands  the  ounces  or  13$  ounces,  which  mul- 

composition  one-sixth  :  making  tiplied  by  100  pages  makes  1320 

23%,  or  practically  24  pages.  ounces,  or  82^  pounds. 


Square  Inches  Covered  ly  Ems       179 

below  nonpareil,  ten-to-pica  leads  are  thick  enough 
to  make  the  desired  relief. 

Space  occupied  by  1000  ems  solid,  in  square  inches : 

Minion,  or  7-point 9.37 

Nonpareil,  or  6-point . .  6.89 

Agate,  or  5^ -point ...  5.79 

Pearl,  or  5-point 4.78 

Diamond,  or  4^-point.  3.87 

Brilliant,  or  4-point. . .  3.06 


English,  or  14-point  .  .  38.48 

Pica,  or  12-point 27.55 

Small-pica,  or  11-point  23.16 
Long-primer,  or  10-pt.  19.12 
Bourgeois,  or  9-point . .  15.50 
Brevier,  or  8-point 12.25 


This  table  will  be  found  of  value  in  determining 
the  size  of  type  that  must  be  selected  to  make  a 
definite  amount  of  matter  fill  a  prescribed  space. 

The  relations  which  one  thousand  solid  ems  of 
any  body  bear  to  all  other  bodies  are  given  in  the 
table  on  the  next  page. 1 


1  Inexperts  in  the  calculations 
of  space  required  for  a  reprint 
in  any  change  of  size  of  type 
should  carefully  study  the  rela- 
tions of  the  bodies  as  they  are 
shown  in  these  tables.  It  is  a 
common  error  to  assume,  be- 
cause the  bodies  of  the  point 
system  are  put  apart  at  fixed 
and  regular  distances,  that  the 
increase  of  ems  in  every  change 
from  a  larger  to  a  smaller  body 
will  be  in  a  similar  form  of  even 
and  exact  progression.  On  the 
contrary,  the  progression  is  un- 
even and  inexact.  In  the  space 
of  27.55  square  inches  occupied 
by  1000  ems  of  pica  can  be  put 
1190  ems  of  small-pica.  This  is 
an  increase  of  19  per  cent.  In  the 


9.37  square  inches  occupied  by 
1000  ems  of  minion  can  be  put 
1361  ems  of  nonpareil.  This  is 
an  increase  of  36  per  cent.  A 
comparison  of  bodies  on  half- 
points,  as  between  5^-  and  5- 
point,  will  show  a  similar  irreg- 
ularity. It  is  not  possible,  in  the 
American  point  system,  to  name 
one  factor  which  will  show  the 
increase  or  decrease  between 
proximate  bodies.  Every  body 
is  increased  or  diminished  in  un- 
even proportion.  The  system  of 
points,  which  seems  so  regular 
and  exact  in  its  progression  by 
lines,  is  quite  as  irregular  as 
any  of  the  old  methods  when  it 
attempts  progression  by  ems  or 
squares. 


>  e  § 

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§   *>   ; 

IV: 

05  2 : 

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r2      V   • 

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rO     =^^" 
<4J  ^     S 

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111 


r-s  •«»  ^ 

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PH 


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o 
o 


O'HHrH 


§-^rHOCO 
^rHOrH 


S      rH      2      S 


00     CO      CM 


rH      C>      00 


O5      Oi      i-"      CO 


O      O 


O  O 
O5  CO 
T^  CO 


§OCOOOCOOOOCOOiO5lO 
OOb-rHCMO^OCMCOCMO 
L-~OCOCOrHCOrHOOOCO*OTtl 


rH      00      O      00      rH 


S  §  S 


i 


rH      CO 
'        @ 


O5     TjH      O      CO      CO      O 
CM      CM      CM      rH      rH      rH 


CO  O 
O  O 
CO  O 


1C      00      rH 


S 


CO      CO 

cc    co 

IO      CM 


CO  rH  CO 
t—  O5  rH 
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c:    o 

b-     CO 


% 


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00  CO 


CM      CM 


%  IB 


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'%  '%  '%  '% 

PH  P-,  PH  PJ 


^ 

.    -    .    - 


.    -    . 


180 


A  Contrast  of  Systems  181  i 

The  irregular  progression  of  bodies  made 

on  the  system  of  points  is  shown  by  the 

diagram  on  the  right  side.     The  straight 

hair-line  by  the  side  of  this  column  of  em 

quadrats  does  not  touch  each  quadrat 

on  its  corner,  as  it  should.     It  diverges 

at  an  increasing  angle,  which  proves 

an  irregular  progression  of  the  smaller 

bodies. 

The  hair-line  by  the  side  of  the  col- 
umn on  the  left  side  of  this  diagram 
touches  every  em  quadrat  at  its  cor- 
ner, and  proves  that  each  body  has 
been   regularly  increased  or  de- 
creased by  geometrical  rules.    In 
an  ascending  scale  Bruce's  pica 
is  about  12J  per  cent.  (.122462) 
larger  than  the  small-pica.    In 
a  descending  scale,  small-pica 
is  but  10£  per  cent.  (.108723) 
smaller  than  the  pica.  These 
factors  can  be  applied  to  all 
proximate  bodies :   12J  per 
cent,  for  the  increase,  and 
10J  per  cent,  for  decrease. 
See  table  on  page  148. 


Era  quadrats  of 
Bruce  system 


Em  quadrats  of  American 
point  system 


The  Faces  or  Styles  of  Type    Old-style  Roman 

<jNDER  the  American  system  of  points 
the  bodies  of  type  are  clearly  de- 
scribed by  numerical  names.  Faces 
and  styles  have  to  be  described  by 
a  ruder  method,  with  long  names 
of  two,  three,  or  four  words.  The  first  word 
always  describes  the  body.  If  no  other  word 
The  methods  is  added,  this  single  word  is  always 
observed  in  understood  as  the  name  of  a  body 

naming  faces     wftfa  roman  f  ace  .   pica  js  pjca  roman. 

The  second  word  more  plainly  describes  the  face 
or  style,  as  pica  antique  or  pica  gothic.  The  third 
word  usually  describes  its  form  as  to  thickness 
or  thinness:  pica  antique  extended  is  a  thick 
type,  and  pica  antique  condensed  is  a  thin  type. 
The  fourth  word  is  intended  to  describe  its  fash- 
ion of  ornament,  as  pica  antique  condensed  out- 
line ;  but  all  ornamental  types,  and  indeed  many 

182 


The  Classification  of  Types          183 

plain  types,  are  named  and  classified  in  an  unsat- 
isfactory manner.  The  names  given  to  many  of 
them  are  fanciful  and  not  at  all  descriptive.  When 
made  by  different  founders,  the  same  face  may  be 
labeled  by  each  founder  with  a  different  name. 
The  antique  of  the  United  States  is  the  egyptian 
of  Great  Britain  j  the  antiqua  of  Germany  is  the 
roman  of  England  and  the  United  States. 

Arbitrary  or  fanciful  names  are  seldom  given 
to  roman  types.  Every  distinctive  face  or  style  is 
labeled  by  the  founder  with  a  number  arbitrarily 
selected.  One  type-foundry  uses  numbers  for  all 
faces,  roman  or  ornamental. 

The  type-founders  of  the  United  States,  in  their 
price-lists,  arrange  printing- types  in  three  distinct 
classes-  Roman  and  italic  are  put  in  Types  grouped 
the  first  class ;  plain  faces  of  display  in  three  classes 
type,  like  antique,  gothic,  and  clarendon,  are  in 
the  second  class ;  ornamental  types  of  every  kind 
are  in  the  third  class.  Greek  and  orientals,  music 
and  some  faces  of  script,  are  properly  put  in  an- 
other distinct  class ;  but  types  of  this  fourth  class, 
having  but  a  limited  sale,  seldom  appear  in  the 
ordinary  price-list. 

Within  the  limits  prescribed  for  this  volume  it 
is  not  practicable  to  illustrate  or  even  enumerate 
all  the  faces  that  have  been  made  for  the  first  and 
second  classes.  All  of  them  are  based  on  the 
roman  model,  which  is  still  accepted  as  the  sim- 
plest and  best  for  a  readable  text-type. 


184          The  Roman  Face  Preferred 

Script  types  are  imitations  of  different  styles 
of  handwriting,  but  every  one  of  them,  even  the 
most  flourished,  was  modeled  on  some  fashion  of 
roman  letter  preferred  or  used  by  early  copyists. 

Italic  is  but  a  simplified  style  of  disconnected 
script.  Its  capitals  differ  from  roman  mostly  in 
their  inclination. 

Black-letter  is  a  degenerate  form  of  roman,  in 
which  angles  are  substituted  for  curves.  Its  capi- 
tals are  probably  imitations  of  the  hasty  flourishes 
of  an  inexpert  penman. 

Gothic,  without  serifs,  the  simplest  and  rudest 
of  all  styles,  seems  an  imitation  of  roman  capitals 
cut  in  stone. 

Italian  is  a  roman  in  which  the  positions  of  hair- 
line and  thick  stroke  have  been  transposed. 

Title,  or  fat-face,  is  a  broad  style  of  roman  with 
over-thick  body-marks. 

Antique  is  a  roman  in  which  the  lines  of  all  the 
characters  are  nearly  uniform  as  to  thickness,  with 
square  corners  and  of  greatly  increased  boldness. 

Ornamentals  of  every  style,  and  even  the  new- 
est varieties  of  eccentric  types,  show  some  con- 
formity to  the  roman  model. 

The  roman  face  is  always  in  most  request,  for 
roman  is  the  character  preferred  as  a  text-letter 
Roman  faces  by  all  English-speaking  peoples  and 
most  used  a}j  ^he  Latin  races.  Its  only  serious 
rival  in  general  literature  is  the  fractur,  or  the 
popular  face  of  German  type;  but  even  in  Ger- 


Eoman  Made  in  Three  Series        185 

many  roman  is  largely  used  as  the  text-letter  for 
scientific  books,  and  for  inscriptions  on  coins  and 
medals.  Not  one  of  the  many  new  faces  intro- 
duced by  the  type-founders  of  this  century  has 
ever  been  considered  an  improvement  on  or  ac- 
cepted as  a  substitute  for  roman. 

Every  complete  font  of  roman  type  between  and 
including  the  most-used  sizes  of  pearl  and  great- 
primer  is  provided  with  three  series  of  Hag  three 
characters :  capitals,  small  capitals,  and  series  of 
lower-case  or  smaU  letters.1  Small  cap-  character8 
itals  are  not  made  for  the  smallest  size  of  bril- 
liant, nor  for  the  sizes  above  great-primer.  Italic, 
although  of  a  distinct  face,  is  always  made  a  part 
of  every  large  font  of  roman  type,  and  must  be 
regarded  as  its  inseparable  mate,  for  the  italic  of 
every  approved  roman  should  have  been  cut  to 
line  with  its  accompanying  roman  and  to  illus- 
trate its  peculiarity  of  style. 

With  italic  capitals  and  italic  lower-case  added, 
there  are  five  series  in  every  complete  font  of  our 
selected  text-letter.  This  is  a  peculiar-  with  itallc 
ity  not  to  be  found  in  any  other  literary  there  are 
character.  The  older  forms  of  orientals  flve  6eries 
have  one  series  only ;  the  modern  forms  of  Greek, 
German,  and  Russian  have  but  two.  The  capitals 
of  German  are  too  complex  to  be  used  alone  as 

l  The  phrase  small  letters  is  lor  uses  instead  the  word  minus- 
objectionable  for  its  vagueness ;  cule,  which  is  exactly  descrip- 
lower-case  is  technical  and  not  tive  to  bibliographers,  but  not 
generally  understood.  Dr.  Tay-  to  the  ordinary  reader. 


186        Derivation  of  the  Roman  Face 

a  display  letter  for  titles  or  headings.  Emphasis 
or  display  in  German  is  made  in  the  text,  either 
by  hair-spacing  the  emphatic  words,  or  by  the  use 
of  an  entirely  different  font  of  thick-faced  letter. 
The  poverty  of  all  other  alphabets  in  single  or 
donble  series  is  in  marked  contrast  with  the  afflu- 
ence of  the  five  correlated  series  of  the  roman 
alphabet,  which  enable  the  writer  or  printer  to 
make  emphasis,  display,  or  distinction  without  a 
change  of  size  or  the  violation  of  typographical 
propriety.  The  judicious  alternation  of  capitals, 
small  capitals,  italic,  and  lower-case  makes  printed 
matter  readable  and  rememberable.  The  greatest 
merits  of  the  roman  letter  are  its  simplicity  and 
perspicuity :  it  has  no  useless  or  unmeaning  lines. 
One  has  but  to  compare  it  with  any  other  charac- 
ter, modern  or  ancient,  to  see  how  much  simpler 
and  more  readable  it  is. 

Roman  capitals,  as  now  made  by  type-founders, 
are  imitations  of  the  lapidary  letters  used  by  the 
Derivation  Romans.  Three  characters  only  have 
of  the  roman  been  added:  the  J,  to  distinguish  it 

character  frQm  the  Latin  J?  and  ^  ^  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  the  V.  The  W  is  a  gothic  ad- 
dition. The  lower-case  letters  are  imitations  of 
the  characters  made  by  early  French  and  Italian 
copyists,  which  characters  are  described  by  Dr. 
Taylor  as  the  Caroline  minuscule,  in  use  in  France 
as  early  as  the  ninth  century.1 

l  "The  Alphabet,"  vol.  ii,  pp.  164,  181. 


Small  Capitals  and  Italic  187 

The  capital  and  lower-case  letters  were  first 
made  in  type  in  the  year  1465  by  Sweinheim  and 
Pannartz  at  Subiaco,  near  Rome,  but  the  form 
made  by  Jenson  of  Venice  in  1471  has  ever  since 
served  as  the  model  for  all  type-founders. 

Small  capitals  and  italic  were  made  in  type  for 
Aldus  Manutius  of  Venice,  and  first  shown  by  him 
in  his  octavo  edition  of  Virgil,  dated  Earliest  use  of 
1501.  The  model  selected  was  the  small  capitals 
handwriting  of  Petrarch.  Following  anditalic 
his  fashion  the  capital  letters  used  for  italic  were 
not  inclined:  they  were  made  but  little  larger 
than  the  round  letters  of  the  lower-case,  and  were 
separated  from  the  text  by  a  perceptible  white 
space.1  The  italic  of  this  Virgil  had  little  incli- 
nation, and  seems  free  from  kerned  letters;  but 
ligatures  and  double  letters  and  different  forms 
of  the  same  letter  were  made.  Aldus  and  his 
sons  used  italic  as  the  text-letter  for  many  books. 

c^  <B  T)  CM  &{  V  T^T  v 

Swash  letters. 

The  printers  of  France  seriously  altered  the  italic 
of  Aldus;  they  gave  the  lower-case  letters  more  in- 
clination, and  made  free  use  of  kerns.  Garamond 
made  the  capitals  of  full  height,  and  filled  up  the 
gaps  made  by  the  inclination  with  little  flourishes. 
The  capitals  so  altered  are  known  as  swash  letters. 

IThis  fashion  was  not  peculiar     all  Italian  copyists  of  that  time, 
to  Petrarch.  It  was  observed  by     nor  is  it  yet  obsolete  in  Italy. 


188  Old-style  and  Modern-face 

The  roman  form  of  type  is  subdivided  by  print- 
ers and  founders  into  the  two  classes  of  old-style 
Old-style  and  and  modern-face.  Many  varieties  of 
modem-face  eacn  style  are  made ;  in  some  of  them 
the  distinctive  peculiarities  of  the  style  are  dis- 
cerned with  difficulty.  The  points  of  difference 
may  be  seen  in  the  contrasted  forms  of  each  let- 
ter as  shown  on  the  following  page.  The  faces 
selected  are  "Caslon"  old-style,  from  the  type- 
foundry  of  the  MacKellar,  Smiths  &  Jordan  Co., 
and  the  No.  3  modern-face  is  from  the  foundry  of 
George  Bruce's  Son  &  Co. 

In  the  old-style  the  so-called  hair-line  is  com- 
paratively thick  and  short ;  the  stem  is  protracted 
Differences  to  great  lengtn  before  it  tapers  to  the 
in  line,  stem,  hair-line.  In  the  modern -face  the  hair- 
and  effect  j-ne  -g  snarp  an(j  quite  long,  and  the 

stem  is  relatively  short.  Contrast  the  capital  C 
and  the  lower-case  m  in  the  forms  of  each  style. 
In  the  old-style  the  serif  is  short,  angular,  and 
stubby;  in  the  modern-face  the  s,erif  is  longer, 
lighter,  and  more  gracefully  curved  or  bracketed. 
The  general  effect  of  the  old-style  is  that  of  angu- 
larity; smoothness  in  curves  and  gracefully  taper- 
ing lines  are  not  attempted.  The  general  effect 
of  the  modern-face  is  that  of  roundness,  precision, 
and  symmetry.  As  a  bit  of  drawing  each  letter 
of  a  well-made  modern-face  is  exact,  and  carefully 
finished  in  all  its  details ;  but  when  any  letter  is 
seen  with  its  mates  in  a  mass  of  composed  types, 


Old-style  and  Modern-face 


189 


A  A 

a  a 

NN 

n  n 

B  B 

b  b 

0  0 

0  0 

C  C 
DD 
EE 

c  c 
dd 
e  e 

P  P 

Q.Q 

R  R 

PP 
q  q 

r  r 

F  F 

f  f 

S   S 

s  s 

GG 
HH 

gg 
hh 

TT 

UU 

t  t 
u  u 

I   I 

• 

i  i 

vv 

V  V 

J  J 
KK 

•      • 

J  J 
kk 

ww 

X  X 

ww 

X  X 

LL 
MM 

1  1 
mm 

Y  Y 
Z  Z 

y  y 

Z  Z 

190  Merits  of  the  Two  Styles 

its  high  finish  does  not  seem  to  be  a  merit.  A 
letter  of  modern-cut  is  really  not  so  distinct  as 
the  same  letter  in  the  old-style.  The  old  punch- 
cutter  and  the  modern  punch-cutter  worked  to 
reach  different  ends.  The  old  cutter  put  read- 
ability first  5  he  would  make  his  types  graceful  if 
he  could,  but  he  must  first  of  all  make  them  dis- 
tinct and  readable  in  a  mass.  His  object  was  to 
aid  the  reader.  The  modern  punch-cutter  thinks 
it  his  first  duty  to  make  every  letter  of  graceful 
shape,  but  his  notion  of  grace  is  largely  mechani- 
cal: the  hair-line  must  be  sharp  and  tend  to  its 
invisibility ;  the  curving  stem  must  dwindle  to  its 
hair-line  with  a  faultless  taper ;  the  slender  serif 
must  be  neatly  bracketed  to  the  stem.  Every 
curve  and  angle  is  painfully  correct  and  precise, 
but  the  general  effect  of  types  so  made,  when  put 
in  a  mass,  is  that  of  the  extreme  of  delicacy,  and 
of  the  corresponding  weakness  of  an  overwrought 
delicacy.  To  use  a  painter's  phrase,  the  work  is 
niggled,  or  overdone.  Without  intending  to  do  so, 
the  punch-cutter  has  been  more  intent  on  showing 
his  own  really  admirable  skill  than  he  has  been  in 
helping  the  reader.  His  letters,  undeniably  grace- 
ful when  viewed  singly,  are  not  so  effective  when 
seen  in  the  combinations  of  a  page  or  a  column.1 

l  The  superior  distinctness  of  body  and  thickness  of  stem,  and 

the  old-style  can  be  proved  by  place  them  in  a  favorable  light, 

this  simple  experiment.   Select  Then,  moving  away  from  them, 

equally  well-printedpages  of  old-  note  how  much  sooner  types  of 

style  and  modern-cut,  of  uniform  modern-cut  become  indistinct. 


The  Caslon  Style  191 

Roman  letter  has  been  an  object  of  experiment 
with  type-founders  for  nearly  four  centuries,  but 
it  is  impossible  to  illustrate  or  even  mention  one- 
quarter  of  these  experiments.  Many  forms  once 
popular  have  gone  out  of  use,  and  have  been  for- 
gotten. It  is  not  at  all  important  that  these  old 
fashions  should  be  described.  For  the  purpose 
of  this  work,  it  is  enough  to  illustrate  only  the 
types  that  are  now  made  and  most  used. 

It  is  a  misfortune  that  the  illustrations  of  the 
different  cuts  of  modern-faces  about  to  be  shown 
have  to  be  made  in  types  of  comparatively  small 
size.  Few  roman  faces  of  a  decided  character  are 
made  on  bodies  larger  than  great-primer ;  more  of 
them  are  on  bodies  smaller  than  small-pica.  A  face 
on  double-pica  body  would  show  the  peculiarities 
of  its  style  more  clearly  than  the  same  face  on  pica 
body.  In  the  larger  sizes  the  mannerisms  that 
produce  a  certain  general  effect  are  apparent  at  a 
glance;  in  the  smaller  sizes  they  are  discerned 
only  by  study. 

The  peculiarities  of  the  Caslon  style,  as  shown  on 
pages  69  to  77,  need  little  explanation.  Note  the 
greater  breadth  of  the  stems  of  each  peculiarities 
letter  and  their  protraction  before  of  casion  style 
they  change  to  a  hair-line  or  connect  with  another 
stem,  as  may  be  plainly  seen  in  the  arch  of  the 
m  and  n,  and  the  curve  of  the  C,  C,  and  O.  The 
hair-lines  are  firmer,  although  shorter  than  in 
modern-cut ;  the  serifs  at  the  foot  are  shorter  and 


192  The  Modern-face 

stronger,  but  seldom  bracketed;  the  serifs  at  the 
top,  as  in  the  1,  d,  p,  h,  are  angled  and  strongly 
bracketed. 

The  defects  of  this  style  are :  too  long  a  beak  to 
the  £  and  j ;  unnecessary  narrowness  in  the  S  and 
a,  and  in  some  capitals ;  too  great  width  of  the 
C,  O,  and  V.  But  these  are  trifles.  In  general 
effect  the  Caslon  is  bold,  but  not  black ;  clear  and 
open,  but  not  weak  or  delicate.  There  are  few 
noteworthy  faults  of  lining  or  fitting-up.  It  was 
made  to  be  read  and  to  withstand  wear.  Some 
variations  in  style  may  be  detected  in  a  compari- 
son of  different  sizes  of  this  cut,  but  it  is  fairly 
uniform  as  to  general  effect  throughout  the  series. 

The  modern-face  is  in  strong  contrast  to  the 
Caslon  style.  The  stems  are  sometimes  relatively 
Peculiarities  thicker,  but  in  all  curved  lines  they 
of  modern-face  are  shorter.  The  serifs  are  much 
longer ;  in  many  of  the  capitals  they  are  strongly, 
and  in  all  the  lower-case  but  feebly,  connected 
with  the  stems.  The  hair-lines  are  sharper,  but 
of  greater  length  and  greater  weakness.  Lining 
and  fitting-up  are  admirable ;  drawing  and  cut- 
ting, excellent.  It  is  a  remarkably  graceful  and 
beautiful  face  of  type  when  entirely  new,  yet  it  is 
not  a  good  type  for  reading,  for  the  sharp  hair- 
lines are  readily  seen  only  by  readers  of  excellent 
eyesight.  Nor  is  it  a  good  form  to  withstand  wear. 
The  force  of  impression  needed  to  print  the  thick 
stems  soon  gaps  or  crushes  the  unprotected  hair- 


Modernised  Old-style  193 

lines.  When  the  serifs  have  been  thickened  and 
the  hair-lines  gapped  by  wear,  the  beauty  of  the 
best  cuts  of  modern-face  soon  disappears. 

The  modernized  old-style  here  shown  is  an  at- 
tempt to  accommodate  the  old  fashion  to  newer 
notions  of  symmetry.     The  objection-    Features  of 
able  features  in  the  letters  a,  g,  W,  S,    the  modem- 
CD,  C  have  been  removed.     The  body-    izedold-8^le 
marks  have  been  made  slightly  narrower  and  the 
hair-lines   a  little   sharper,  but,  as  some  think, 
not  to  their  improvement.     The  protracted  stem, 
the  short  hair-line  and  serif,  have  been  preserved. 
The  greatest  change  has  been  made  in  shortening 


The  Old-style  of  this 
modernized  form  was 
first  made  for  Miller  & 
Richard,  Edinburgh, 
about  the  year  1 860. 


Modernized  old-style  on  double  small-pica  body,  solid.1 
George  Bruce's  Son  &  Co.,  New- York. 

ascenders  and  descenders,  and  in  the  consequent 
enlarging  of  the   small  or  round  letters.     The 

l  This   modernized    old-style     &  Richard  by  Phemister,  then 
was  designed  and  cut  for  Miller     of  Edinburgh,  later  of  Boston. 
25 


194  Modernized  Old-style 

modernized  old-style  pica  seems  larger  than  the 
pica  of  Caslon.  It  is  a  broader  letter,  yet  it  does 
not  have  a  similar  relief  of  white  space  between 
the  lines.  This  feature  is  most  noticeably  shown 
in  this  specimen  of  double  small-pica,  which  in  a 
large  page  is  much  improved  by  leading. 

The  general  effect  of  the  smaller  sizes  of  this 
style  (which  is  more  fully  illustrated  on  pages  82 
is  restful  to  to  97  of  this  work)  is  that  of  a  pleas- 
tfte  eye  jng  ana  a  restful  monotony.  It  does 

not  irritate  the  eye  with  sharp  contrasts  of  brist- 
ling angles  and  thick  and  thin  lines ;  it  does  not 
challenge  the  reader's  attention  to  a  study  of  its 
individual  characters.  For  this  reason  it  is  pre- 
ferred by  many  authors  for  serious  books,  and  by 
many  publishers  as  the  best  form  of  colorless  text- 
letter  to  put  around  engravings  on  wood  that  show 
strong  contrasts  of  black  and  white. 

Other  foundries  have  made  new  faces  of  the 
old-style  character  which  show  their  notions  of 
commendable  improvements.  Few  of  these  new 
faces  are  firm  or  bold ;  in  nearly  all,  the  angular 
features  are  rounded  or  softened.  Large  faces 
with  thin  body-marks  and  hair-lines  are  preferred. 
There  seems  to  be  a  real  avoidance  of  the  firm- 
ness of  line  which  is  the  best  feature  of  this  char- 
acter. An  old-style  so  treated  is  often  a  graceful 
character ;  it  has,  or  may  have,  the  contour  of  the 
best  old  model,  but  it  does  not  produce  the  strong 
effect  of  the  true  old-style  letter. 


The  Franklin  Face  195 

One  of  the  first,  if  not  the  first,  of  the  mod- 
ernized old-styles  produced  in  this  country  was  de- 
signed and  cut  in  1863  by  A.  C.  Phemister,  to  the 
order  of  Phelps  &  Dalton,  who  called  the  new  let- 
ter the  "  Franklin  face."  It  is  a  trifle  wider  as  to 


BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN  was  born  in  Boston, 
1 7th  of  January,  1706,  and  died  in  Philadelphia, 
1 7th  of  April,  1790.  He  began  his  apprentice- 
ship as  printer  in  1718,  and  worked  as  a  jour- 
neyman in  Philadelphia  in  1724,  and  in  London 
in  1725.  He  returned  to  Philadelphia  in  1726, 
and  there  began  as  master  printer  in  1729.  As 
editor  and  publisher  he  soon  made  himself  a 
man  of  note.  He  invented  the  Franklin  stove 
in  1742  ;  he  proved  the  identity  of  lightning  and 
electricity  in  1752  ;  he  was  made  clerk  of  the 
Assembly  in  1736;  postmaster  of  Philadelphia 
in  1737  ;  deputy  postmaster-general  for  the  colo- 
nies in  1753  ;  representative  of  Pennsylvania  be- 
fore the  council  of  England  in  1757  and  again 
in  1764;  delegate  to  Congress  in  1775  ;  ambas- 
sador to  France  in  1776  ;  commissioner  to  Eng- 
land in  1783;  president  of  Pennsylvania  from 
1785  to  1787  ;  delegate  to  the  constitutional 
convention  in  1787. 


Franklin  old-style  on  long-primer  body,  solid. 
Phelps,  Dalton  &  Co. 

form  and  larger  as  to  face,  and  consequently  more 
open  and  perhaps  a  little  more  inviting  to  the  eye 
than  his  first  attempt,  as  shown  by  Miller  &  Rich- 
ard. Some  characters  have  been  much  improved  ; 


196  Large-faced  Old-style 

they  show  an  evident  leaning  to  the  forms  that 
are  most  approved  in  modern-cut  letter. 


THURLOW  WEED  was  born  in  Cairo, 
Greene  County,  New  York,  I5th  November, 
1797,  and  died  in  New  York  city  22d  No- 
vember, 1882.  He  entered  a  printing  office 
when  but  twelve  years  of  age.  In  1815  he 
was  a  journeyman  in  New  York  city,  work- 
ing by  the  side  of  James  Harper  in  the  office 
of  Paul  &  Thomas.  In  1819  he  established 
a  weekly  newspaper  in  Norwich,  Chenango 
County,  New  York.  In  1830  he  established 
the  "  Albany  Evening  Journal,"  which  soon 
became  a  power  in  politics.  He  never  held 
any  public  office,  yet  he  exerted  a  wonderful 
influence  in  the  management  of  men  and  in 
the  direction  of  public  affairs.  He  did  good 
service  to  the  United  States  in  defending  na- 
tional interests  abroad  during  the  civil  war. 


Large-faced  old-style  on  long-primer  body,  solid. 
Phelps,  Dalton  &  Co. 

To  supply  a  demand  for  a  still  larger  face,  the 
same  foundry  had  cut  for  it  by  the  same  punch- 
cutter  a  large-faced  old-style  in  a  full  series  of 
hook  sizes.  The  specimen  here  presented  is  on 
long-primer  body,  but  it  seems  quite  as  large  as 
the  small-pica  shown  upon  page  86  of  this  work. 
This  enlargement  was  made  by  shortening  the 
descenders  and  ascenders,  and  pushing  them  to 
the  verge  of  the  body.  It  will  be  noted  that  long 


The  Original  Old-style  197 

types  in  adjacent  lines  often  touch  and  seem  to 
connect.  It  is  a  well-cut  and  readable  letter,  but 
it  is  neither  true  old-style  nor  modern-cut. 

The  Binny  face  and  the  Bradford  face  made  by 
MacKellar,  Smiths  &  Jordan  Co.  are  other  merito- 
rious forms  of  modernized  old-style. 

To  meet  a  demand  for  a  "  real "  old-style,  a  series 
of  book  sizes  has  been  produced,  either  from  re- 
furbished old  punches,  or  from  new  punches  in 
faithful  imitation  of  the  English  or  Dutch  roman 
letter  in  general  use  during  the  first  half  of  the 


WILLIAM  JANSEN  BLAEW,  a  diftinguifhed 
printer  of  Holland,  was  born  in  1571  and  died  at 
Amfterdam  in  1638.  He  had  been  taught  the 
trade  of  a  joiner,  at  which  work  he  made  himfelf 
efficient  as  an  affiftant  to  the  aftronomer  Tycho 
Brahe.  After  receiving  inftruclion  from  Brahe, 
he  went  to  Amfterdam,  and  there  diftinguifhed 
himfelf  by  the  publication  of  maps  and  the  making 
of  geographical  globes.  His  frequent  vifits  to  the 
printing  office  taught  him  fomething  about  printing, 
and  led  him  to  eftablifh  an  office  for  his  own  work. 
DifTatifTied  with  the  old  form  of  hand-prefs,  he  re- 
constructed it,  and  made  many  valuable  improve- 
ments which  were  gradually  accepted  by  printers 
everywhere.  His  "  Theatrum  Mundi,"  in  fourteen 
volumes  folio,  is  one  of  the  beft  fpecimens  of  the 
printing  and  engraving  of  the  feventeenth  century. 


Original  old-style  on  long-primer  body,  solid. 
MacKellar,  Smiths  &  Jordan  Co. 


198     Basle,  or  Early-Italian,  Old-style 

seventeenth  century.  It  is  a  lean  letter  with  a 
small  face,  and  has  many  characters  now  regarded 
as  uncouth.  The  Cc,  the  long  1  with  its  train  of 
doublets,  and  other  obsolete  forms  are  conspic- 
uous. For  the  reprints  of  many  English  books 
published  in  the  eighteenth  century  this  original 
old-style  is  the  most  appropriate,  but  its  meagre- 
ness  and  quaintness  have  often  prejudiced  many 
readers  against  all  forms  of  old-style. 

There  are  authors  who  are  not  content  with  the 
moderate  rudeness  of  the  "  original "  old-style,  but 
want  an  earlier  and  cruder  form.  For  this  taste, 
types  have  been  made  in  imitation  of  the  roman 
used  by  printers  in  France,  Italy,  and  Holland  dur- 
ing the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries. 

The  Chiswick  Press  has  an  old-style  which  is  a 
reproduction  of  a  bold  face  once  used  by  printers 
The  Basle,  or  °^  Basle  and  by  some  early  Italian 
Eariy-itaiian,  printers.  It  was  made  about  1887  ex- 
clusively for  the  books  of  the  Chiswick 
Press,  and  has  been  employed  by  that  house  as 
a  choice  letter  for  works  of  merit.  It  is  a  bold 
and  readable  letter.  Its  most  noticeable  features 
are  an  upward  slope  of  the  cross-bar  in  the  C, 
greater  thickness  of  the  stems,  avoidance  of  hair- 
lines, stubbiness  of  serifs,  obliqueness  of  the  thick 
strokes  in  rounded  letters  like  O,  C,  p,  q,  large 
small-capitals,  and  an  increased  width  of  many  of 
the  large  capitals.  It  is  one  of  the  modern  old- 
styles  that  retains  characteristic  peculiarities.  At 


Basle,  or  Early-Italian,  Old-style     199 

this  date  (1891),  it  has  been  made  only  on  a  small- 
pica  body,  and  has  as  yet  no  appropriate  italic.1 


C  CHARLES  WHITTINGHAM,  firjt  of 
the  name  in  the  annals  of  printing,  was  born  in 
1767,  at  Calledon,  in  the  county  of  Warwick, 
England.  About  1790  he  began  bujinefs  at 
London  as  a  majler  printer.  In  1 8 1  o  he  removed 
to  Chifwick,  and  there  founded  the  CHISWICK 
PRESS,  which  ever  jince  has  maintained  the 
highejl  reputation  for  good  book  printing.  He 
died  in  1840.  His  nephew  Charles  (born  in 
1 795),  fucceedcd  to  the  bufmejs  and  to  the  friend- 
jhip  and  confidence  of  the  publijher,  Pickering, 
for  whom  he  made  many  admirable  books. 
After  his  death  in  1876,  the  bujinejs  was  con- 
tinued by  his  executors. 


The  Basle  old-style  of  the  Chiswick  Press. 

The  seventeenth-centnry  style,  or,  as  it  is  often 
called  in  this  country,  the  Elzevir 2  style,  was  re- 

1  The     peculiarities    of    this  recently  published  book,  "  Tipo 
Basle  style  are  more  strikingly  Italian  o  non  Elzeviriano,"  ap- 
presented  in  some  books  printed  punti  di  B.  L.  Centenari,  Borne, 
at  Venice  at  the  close  of  the  1879,  intimates  that  the  Elzevirs 
fifteenth  century.  were  pro  videdwith  Italian  types. 

2  The  name  Elzevir  is  unwisely  The  author  gives  us  no  satisfac- 
chosen,  for  this  face  is  unlike  tory  evidence  in  support  of  this 
the  Van  Dijk  face,  largely  used  intimation,  and   Willems   ridi- 
by  the  Elzevir  family.  Who  then  cules  it,  but  it  must  be  admitted 
did  make  it  ?   Didot  ("  Essai  sur  that  this  so-called  Elzevir  letter 
la  Typographic,"   p.   699)   says  has  features  unlike  those  of  any 
that  Garamond  and  Sanlecque  seventeenth-century  face  made 
made  types  for  the  Elzevirs.   A  in  France  or  Holland. 


200  Elzevir  Old-style 


LOUIS  ELZEVIR  was  a  publisher  at  Leyden 
from  1 583  to  1 6 1 7.  His  sons  Matthew,  Louis, 
Josse,  Gilles,  and  Bonaventure  were  also  pub- 
lishers :  Matthew  at  Leyden,  Louis  and  Gilles 
at  La  Haye,  Josse  at  Utrecht,  Bonaventure,  who 
also  was  a  printer,  at  Leyden.  .  .  .  Abraham 
and  Isaac,  sons  of  Matthew,  were  printers  and 
publishers  at  Leyden.  Jacob,  another  son,  was 
a  publisher  at  La  Haye.  .  .  .  Daniel,  ablest  of 
the  family  (son  of  Bonaventure),  was  printer 
and  publisher,  first  at  Leyden,  and  afterward  at 
Amsterdam,  between  the  years  1 652  and  1 680. 


Seventeenth-century  old-style  on  body  10,  solid. 
Gustave  Mayeur,  Paris.1 

vived  in  1878  by  Gustave  Mayeur  of  Paris,  who 
says  that  he  selected  for  his  model  the  types  of  a 
The  Elzevir  book  printed  in  1634  by  the  Elzevirs  of 
old-style  Leyden.  It  is  a  compressed  letter,  with 
a  large  open  face,  with  very  short  ascenders  and 
descenders,  and  thin  stems,  plainly  made  to  with- 
stand wear,  for  the  few  hair-lines  are  of  unusual 
thickness  and  all  the  serifs  are  short  and  stubby. 

i  Mayeur  founds  this  style  in  have  drives  from  the  original 

a  complete  book  series,  on  all  punches,  found  complete  fonts 

bodies  from  body  5  to  body  14,  of  this  face,  with  its  italic  on  6- 

including  a  specially  cut   and  8- 10-  and  12-point  bodies.    Sev- 

properly  mated  italic ;    and  in  eral  American  foundries  make 

the  form  of  two-line    capitals  some  of  these  larger  sizes  with 

only  on  several  bodies  between  an  appropriate  lower-case.  Three 

body  10  and  body  72.     Farmer,  lines  of  a  larger  size  can  be  seen 

Little  &  Co.,  of  New  York,  who  on  page  51. 


Elzevir  Old-style  201 

Although  fitted  with  unusual  closeness  it  is  a  read- 
able letter,  and  popular,  not  only  with  publishers 
and  authors,  but  with  job  printers.  Its  full  series 
of  durable  two-line  letter  makes  it  especially  val- 
uable for  book  titles  and  open  display. 

Phelps,  Dalton  &  Co.  of  Boston  make  a  varia- 
tion of  this  face  which  has  the  characteristics  of 
the  original  in  the  features  of  firm  hair-lines,  close 
set,  stubby  serif,  and  ability  to  withstand  wear, 
with  the  added  feature  of  greater  compression. 


SAMUEL  NELSON  DICKINSON  was  born  in 
the  town  of  Phelps,  Ontario  County,  New  York, 
llth  December,  1801.  After  learning  the  trade 
of  a  printer  in  the  Palladium  office,  Geneva, 
N.  Y.,  he  worked  as  a  compositor  in  New  York 
city  and  Boston.  In  1829  he  began  business  as 
a  master  printer.  Inability  to  get  the  types  he 
needed  led  him  to  type-making,  in  which  he  soon 
acquired  distinction,  his  styles  being  preferred  by 
the  printers  of  New  England.  He  died  in  Rox- 
bury,  Mass.,  on  the  16th  day  of  December,  1848. 
He  was  succeeded  by  Sewall  Phelps,  a  proof- 
reader of  education,  and  Michael  Dalton,  an  ex- 
pert type-founder.  After  the  death  of  Phelps 
in  1863,  and  of  Dalton  in  1879,  new  members 
were  admitted,  of  whom  now  remain  George 
J.  Pierce,  Alexander  Phemister,  A.  C.  Converse, 
and  J.  W.  Phinney,  trading  under  the  firm-name 
of  Phelps,  Dalton  & 


Elzevir  old-style  on  long-primer  body,  solid. 

No.  19  of  Phelps,  Dalton  &  Co. 
26 


202  Ronaldson  Old-style 

The  " Ronaldson  old-style"  was  designed  and 
made  in  1884  by  the  MacKellar,  Smiths  &  Jordan 
Ronaldson  Co.  In  this  f  ace  the  squared  or  angled 
old-style  shoulder  of  the  HI  and  n,  and  all  other 
peculiarities  of  old-style,  are  strongly  emphasized. 
Note  the  angled  serifs  of  the  lower-case,  and  the 
added  angles  given  to  many  of  the  capitals.  It 


JAMES  RONALDSON  was  born  in 
1768,  at  Gorgie,  near  Edinburgh.  In 
1 794  he  went  to  Philadelphia  and  there 
followed  the  business  of  biscuit-baking. 
When  the  bakery  was  destroyed  by 
fire,  in  1796,  he  sought  a  new  business, 
which  he  found  in  a  partnership  with 
ARCHIBALD  BINNY,  a  practical  type- 
founder. Ronaldson  contributed  the 
money ;  Binny  the  tools  and  the  prac- 
tical knowledge.  The  partnership, 
which  lasted  for  many  years,  was  of 
mutual  advantage.  Ronaldson  died  in 
Philadelphia  in  1842. 


Eonaldson  old-style,  on  pica  body,  solid. 
MacKellar,  Smiths  &  Jordan  Co. 

is  a  remarkably  clean-cut  letter ;  the  counters  are 
deep,  and  each  character  has  a  notable  sharpness 
and  clearness.  It  is  a  very  popular  letter  with 
job  printers. 


French  Old-style  203 

The  form  of  modernized  old-style  most  used  in 
France,  Belgium,  and  Italy  is  rounder,  fatter,  and 
more  open  than  the  popular  old-styles  of  England 
or  America.  Usually  it  is  of  light  face,  with  firm 
and  visible  hair-lines.  Its  most  pronounced  pecu- 
liarities are  the  great  width  of  the  rounded  capi- 
tals and  an  apparently  fanciful  rearrangement  of 
stems  and  hair-lines.  The  small  capitals  are  often 
weak  and  inconspicuous.  Some  French  founders 
give  their  small  capitals  a  wider  set,  so  that  they 
seem  hair-spaced,  but  this  treatment  more  plainly 
exhibits  their  meagreness.  The  quotation  marks 


FRANCOIS  DIDOT,  the  first  of  a  long 
line  of  French  typographers,  was  born  in 
Paris  in  1689.  He  served  apprenticeship 
to  ANDRE  PRALARD,  printer  and  publisher 
of  that  city.  In  1713  he  was  established 
as  a  master  printer,  choosing  for  his  sign 
and  trade-mark  the  «  Golden  Bible. »  He 
soon  acquired  a  good  reputation  for  the 
beauty  of  his  typography,  of  which  «  THis- 
toire  generate  des  voyages »  in  twenty 
quarto  volumes  is  an  excellent  example. 
In  middle  age  he  was  made  syndic  of  the 
corporation  of  booksellers  and  printers. 
He  died  2d  November,  1759. 


French  old-style  on  body  11,  solid. 
Fonderie  Turlot,  Paris. 


204  Portuguese  Old-style 

are  more  distinct  and  of  better  form  than  those 
used  in  the  English  language. 

For  dictionaries  and  catalogues  in  old-style  face 
that  have  extended  notes  or  explanations,  French 
Condensed  printers  prefer  a  condensed  form  of  old- 
old-style  style,  with  lower-case  large  and  capital 
letters  exceedingly  small,  in  which  the  stem  is  but 
little  thicker  than  the  hair-line.  The  capitals  are 
often  low  of  height  to  allow  the  addition  of  ac- 
cents. This  condensed  form  of  letter,  known  by 
the  name  poetic-face,  is  still  preferred  in  France 
for  poetry.  Its  thinness  prevents  the  turning  over 
of  long  lines. 

The  Portuguese  old-style  on  page  206  was  cut 
about  1804  by  Joaquim  Carneiro  Silva,  then  an 
engraver  attached  to  the  Typographia  Regia  de 
Lisboa,  now  known  as  the  Imprensa  Nacional  de 
Lisboa.  It  has  never  been  used  out  of  this  office, 
and  is  not  for  sale.  Although  a  distinct  old-style 
character,  it  betrays,  in  the  mannerisms  of  some 
of  the  letters,  traces  of  fashions  then  prevailing. 
Note  the  thinness  of  the  E,  the  crossed  bars  of 
the  W,  and  the  greater  width  of  the  rounded  cap- 
ital letters.  The  peculiarities  of  its  cut  may  be 
discerned  more  plainly  in  the  capitals  that  follow. 


ABCDEFGHIJKLMN 
OPQRSTUVWXYZ 


French  Poetic-face  205 


N°.  XXXIV.  32 

CICERO  POETIQUE. 

IL/  N  General  d'armee  recevant 
de  tomes  parts  des  plaintes  centre 
un  Munitionnaire  ,  le  fit  venir ,  & 
pour  premier  compliment  le  mena- 
c,a  de  le  faire  pendre.  Monfeigneur , 
repondit  froidement  le  Munition- 
naire ,  on  ne  pend  pas  quelqu'un  qui 
peut  difpofer  de  cent  mille  ecus ; 
&  la-deffus  ils  paflerent  dans  le  ca- 
binet. Un  inftant  apres ,  Monfieur 
le  General  ^n  form  perfaade  que 
c'etoit  un  fort  honnete-homme. 

Ceci  nous  apprend  qu'on  ne  doit 
ias  juger  tro.p  precipifamment  de 
a  conduite  du  procham  ,  ni  le  con- 
damner  fans  Tentendre.  II  eft  bien 
aife  de  dire  que  certaines  gens  font 
des  fripons ,  mais  il  faut  le  prouver. 


f 

la 


From  Founder's  u  Manuel  Typographique." 


206  Portuguese  Old-style 


THOMAS  BEWICK,  the  reviver 
of  the  art  of  engraving  on  wood, 
was  born  at  Cherryburn,  Eng- 
land, 1 2th  August,  1 7 53,  and  died 
at  Gateshead,8th  November,  1 828. 
In  1775  he  took  the  first  prize  for 
the  best  woodcut.  In  1790  he 
published  a  "  History  of  Quad- 
rupeds" with  illustrations  drawn 
and  engraved  by  his  own  hand. 
In  1797  appeared  the  "British 
Birds,"  which  at  once  established 
his  reputation  as  a  great  master 
in  the  art  of  engraving  on  wood. 


Portuguese  old-style,  011  body  14,  solid. 

From  the  Imprensa  Nacional  de  Lisboa,  by  permission  of 

the  manager,  Dr.  V.  Deslandes. 

When  William  Morris  determined  to  make  a  new 
style  of  roman  type,  he  selected  for  his  model  the 
roman  type  on  great-primer  body  of  Nicolas  Jen- 
son.  Morris  put  his  adaptation  on  english  or  14- 
point  body,  but  he  made  it  very  much  bolder  and 
blacker.  The  Golden  type,  for  so  Morris  named 
it,  approximates  the  thickened  face  known  in 


HE 

scott  Press 
began  work 
at  Hammer/ 
smith  in  Fe^ 
bruary  1891, 
The  designx 
er  of  the  type 
W+  Morris, 
took  as  his 
model  Nicholas  Jenson's  Roman  let' 
ter  used  in  Venice  in  the  15th  Cenx 
tury,  and  which  unites  in  the  fullest 
degree  the  necessary  qualities  of  purx 

ity  of  line  and  legibility*  Jenson  gives 

.  _  ^ 

usthehighxwatermarkofthe  Roman 
character :  from  his  death  onwards 
typography  declined  till  it  reached  its 
lowest  depth  in  the  ugliness  of  Bo^ 
doni.  Since  then  the  English  typo/* 
graphers  followingmore  or  less  in  the 
footsteps  of  Caslon,  have  recovered 
much  of  the  lost  ground;  but  as  their 
work  is  almost  always  adapted  for 
machine  printing  it  has  a  tendency 
to  exaggeration  of  lightness  and  thin/ 
ness,  which  may  well  be  corrected, 
in  work  printed  by  the  handxpress, 


208  Jenson  Old-style 

America  as  antique,  and  in  England  as  egyptian, 
more  closely  than  it  does  any  style  now  known  by 
the  name  of  roman.  It  first  appeared  in  1891,  in 
"  The  Story  of  the  Glittering  Plain."  Bibliophiles 
welcomed  the  new  style  as  a  pleasing  return  to 
the  simplicity  of  the  early  printers,  and  as  a  vindi- 
cation of  the  superior  merit  of  old-fashioned  mas- 
culine printing.  Publishers  did  not  entirely  ap- 
prove ;  they  acknowledged  its  merit,  but  said  that 
the  Golden  type  was  too  black  and  rude  for  the 
ordinary  book.  This  seems  to  have  been  intended, 
for  Morris  made  it  in  one  size  only,  and  refused  to 
sell  types  or  matrices,  or  give  the  right  to  repro- 
duce. Imitations  have  been  made;  but  they  are 
seldom  used  for  texts,  and  mainly  for  the  headings 
of  newspaper  articles,  or  for  lines  of  display  in  ad- 
vertisements and  pamphlets. 

The  merit  of  the  Golden  type  is  not  in  its  sturdy 
medievalism,  but  in  its  simplicity  and  legibility, 
and  these  are  features  which  will  be  maintained  in 
future  imitations,  but  perhaps  not  so  emphatically, 
when  our  effeminate  style  of  roman  shall  have  been 
discarded.  The  text  of  the  illustration  on  page 
207  was  written  by  William  Morris,  and  composed 
in  the  printing  room  of  the  Kelmscott  Press  in 
1894.  It  was  kindly  sent  as  a  contribution  to  this 
book. 


VI 


Modern  Faces  of  Roman  Letter 

jjOT  one  of  the  styles  approved  in 
England  and  France  at  the  close  of 
the  last  and  the  beginning  of  this 
century  is  now  in  favor.  The  forms 
of  Jackson,  Fry,  and  Baskerville  are 
never  imitated.  Even  in  Italy  and  changes  in 
France  the  styles  of  Bodoni  and  Didot  the  fashion 
had  but  a  brief  popularity.  The  recently  ( 
revived  taste  in  Paris  for  the  Didot  faces  is  re- 
stricted to  a  few  fine  books,  and  promises  to  be 
but  a  passing  fancy.  The  only  style  that  lasted 
for  many  years  was  the  fat-face  of  Robert  Thorne, 
shown  on  the  following  page. 

This  is  the  "  fat-faced,  preposterous  dispropor- 
tion "  stigmatized  by  Hansard.  Between  1810  and 
1840  it  was  a  popular  style,  made  in  all  sizes  from 
pearl  to  canon.  In  many  printing  houses  it  sup- 
planted the  better  styles  of  Caslon,  Baskerville,  and 
Jackson.  Its  passport  to  favor  was  the  general 

27  209 


210  The  Fat-face 


William  Rittenhouse, 
a  Hollander,  establish- 
ed a  Paper  Mill  near 
Philadelphia,  Pa.,  and 
there  made  Paper  for 
printing  about  169O. 


Fat-face  on  paragon  body,  leaded. 
George  Bruce's  Son  &  Co. 

belief  that  it  was  more  readable  and  more  durable 
than  any  of  the  older  styles.  This  belief  was  not 
Faults  of  confirmed  by  experience.  To  get  a  clear 
the  fat-face  print  from  this  face  required  more  ink 
and  more  impression,  but  excess  of  ink  on  the  small 
sizes  filled  the  low  counters  and  strong  impression 
ruined  the  fine  lines.  When  it  had  received  but 
one-half  the  usual  amount  of  wear  each  character 
was  discerned  mainly  by  its  body-marks.  It  soon 
went  out  of  fashion  as  a  book-type,  and  is  used  by 
job  printers  now  only  in  the  larger  sizes.  Black- 
ness and  boldness  of  stem  are  not  enough  to  make 
a  type  readable  and  durable ;  width  of  counter, 
firmness  of  hair-line  and  serif,  and  proper  relief 
of  white,  are  really  more  important. 


Modern  Bold-face  211 

The  face  shown  on  this  page  is  as  bold  a  face  of 
roman  as  will  be  found  acceptable  for  a  book-text. 
It  is  carefully  drawn  and  well  cut,  is  not  Limitations 
over  black,  and  has  fair  relief  of  white  of  bold-face 
space,  with  many  other  pleasing  features  which 
commend  it  to  job  printers  for  catalogues,  law 
work,  and  documents;  but  publishers  seldom  select 
it  for  a  standard  book.  Its  strong  contrast  of  long 
and  sharp  hair-lines  with  thick  and  black  stems 
makes  the  print  dazzling  and  somewhat  irritating 
to  the  eye.  It  is  not  a  restful  type ;  it  attracts  at- 
tention, but  proves  wearisome  when  diligently  read. 


WILLIAM  BKADEOKD,  the  first 
printer  in  New  York,  was  born  in 
Leicester,  England,  in  1658,  and  be- 
gan business  as  a  master  printer  in 
Philadelphia  in  1682.  Many  disa- 
greements with  the  ruling  authorities 
compelled  him  to  go  to  New  York, 
where,  in  1693,  he  published  his  first 
print.  He  printed  in  New  York  for 
over  fifty  years.  In  1725  he  published 
the  "  New  York  Gazette."  In  1728  he 
had  a  paper  mill  in  Elizabethtown, 
N.  J.  He  died  at  New  York  in  1752. 


Modern  bold-face  on  pica  body,  solid. 
George  Bruce's  Son  &  Co. 


212  The  Scotch-face 


ISAIAH  THOMAS  was  born  in  Boston,  19th 
January,  1749,  and  died  in  Worcester,  4th  April, 
1831.  At  six  years  of  age  he  was  apprenticed  to 
Zachariah  Fowles,  printer,  for  eleven  years.  In 
1770  he  began  the  publication  of  the  "Massachu- 
setts Spy,"  which  he  was  soon  after  obliged  to  re- 
move to  Worcester  for  fear  of  the  destruction  of 
his  printing  office  by  the  Tories.  He  soon  became 
eminent  as  a  publisher ;  the  "  Farmer's  Museum," 
the  "  Massachusetts  Magazine,"  a  folio  Bible,  and 
most  of  the  hymn  books  and  school  books  of  New 
England  came  from  his  presses.  He  was  the  first 
American  printer  who  imported  music  types,  and 
printed  a  text  in  Greek.  He  was  the  founder  of  the 
Antiquarian  Society  of  Worcester,  and  the  author 
of  a  valuable  history  of  printing  in  two  volumes. 


Scotch-face  on  long-primer  body,  solid. 
Phelps,  Dalton  &  Co. 

The  plan  or  design  for  the  peculiar  style  known 
as  the  Scotch-face  was  first  originated  in  1837  by 
Dickinson's  S.  N.  Dickinson  of  Boston.  Alexander 
scotch-face  Wilson  &  Son  cut  the  punches  to  his 
order  and  so  made  the  first  "  Scotch-face "  types. 
Matrices  from  these  punches  were  imported  by 
the  designer,  who  cast  from  them  in  1839  the  first 
types  made  in  his  new  foundry.  The  illustration 
on  this  page  is  a  specimen  of  the  types  cast  from 
these  matrices. 

As  first  made  the  Scotch-face  was  a  small,  neat, 
round  letter,  with  long  ascenders,  and  not  notice- 
ably condensed  or  compressed.  A  complete  series 


The  Scotch-face  213 

of  the  Scotch-face  seems  to  have  been  shown  first 
in  America  by  James  Conner  of  New  York.  Print- 
ers acknowledged  the  superior  grace  of  The  Conner 
this  novel  style,  which  gradually  sup-  scotch-face 
planted  every  other.  After  thirty  years  of  popu- 
larity complaints  of  it  were  heard.  Newspaper 
publishers  said  that  the  first  face  was  too  small  for 
the  body;  and  the  reprinters  of  cheap  books  de- 
clared the  enlarged  face  to  be  too  round,  which  pre- 
vented the  frequent  use  of  it  in  poetry.  These  ob j  ec- 
tions  led  to  the  making  of  a  more  condensed  form. 


HOKACE  GKEELEY  was  born  in  Amherst, 
New  Hampshire,  3d  February,  1811,  and  died  in 
Pleasantville,  Westchester  County,  New  York, 
29th  November,  1872.  His  earliest  training  as 
a  printer  began  in  East  Poultney,  Vermont,  in 
1825.  In  1831  he  went  to  New  York.  In  1833 
he  began  as  a  master  printer;  in  1834  he  estab- 
lished the  "New  Yorker,"  in  1840  the  "Log- 
Cabin,"  and  in  1841  the  "  New  York  Tribune," 
which,  during  his  long  term  of  editorship,  be- 
came a  journal  of  unprecedented  influence  in 
politics.  He  was  a  clear  thinker,  and  a  ready 
writer  in  a  style  of  remarkable  strength.  A 
fearless  opponent  of  slavery  he  made  many  ene- 
mies, but  all  hostilities  ended  with  his  death.  By 
general  consent  he  takes  a  rightful  place  in  the 
annals  of  typography  as  "  our  later  Franklin." 


Scotch-face  on  10-point  body,  solid. 
James  Conner's  Sons. 


214  The  Scotch-face 

The  peculiarities  of  the  condensed  Scotch-face 
may  more  clearly  be  seen  in  this  specimen  of  a  size 
A  condensed  cut  in  1854  by  James  Lindsay.  Note 
scotch-face  the  extension  and  slenderness  of  hair- 
line in  the  arch  of  m,  n,  p,  C,  a,  r ;  the  length  of 
the  serifs,  and  the  general  elongation  of  all  the 
characters  after  the  fashion  of  French  types. 


JOEL  MUNSELL,  a  publisher  and 
printer  of  eminence  was  born  in 
Northfield,  Mass.,  14th  April,  1808, 
and  began  as  master  printer  in  Al- 
bany, New  York,  about  1827.  Mun- 
sell  was  an  industrious  collector  of 
books  on  typography,  the  author  or 
the  compiler  of  several  books  on 
paper  and  printing,  the  publisher  of 
books  on  American  history,  and  a 
founder  of  the  Albany  Institute.  He 
died  in  Albany  15th  January,  1880. 


A  condensed  Scotch-face  on  english  body,  solid. 
George  Brace's  Son  &  Co. 

The  condensed  form  of  Scotch-face  is  now  out 
of  fashion,  for  its  long  serifs  and  short  hair-lines 
and  its  feminine  delicacy  of  cut  are  not  pleasing 
when  the  letter  has  received  ordinary  wear.  The 
rounder  faces  of  this  style  retain  their  popularity. 


Condensed  French-face  215 


FRANQOIS-AMBROISE  DIDOT,  son  of 
Frangois,  was  born  in  Paris,  7th  January, 
1730,  and  died  10th  July,  1804.  He  gave 
much  attention  to  the  improvement  of  type- 
founding  and  paper-making.  His  system  of 
typographic  points  supplanted  that  of  Four- 
nier.  At  his  suggestion,  and  by  his  aid,  the 
paper-maker  Johannot  first  made  the  papier 
velin  or  calendered  paper.  His  most  cele- 
brated works  are  the  "  DAUPHIN"  edition  of 
the  classics,  in  thirty-two  volumes,  4to,  and 
the  "ARTOIS"  edition  of  sixty-four  volumes, 
18mo,  which  are  highly  prized  by  collectors. 


The  condensed  French-face  on  body  12,  solid. 
Gustave  Mayeur,  Paris. 

This  form  but  not  this  face  of  thin  letter,  which 
was  probably  the  model  for  the  condensed  Scotch- 
face,  was  introduced  to  French  printers  ^^  f ace8 
by  Fournier  in  1776  as  a  type  "  in  the  preferred 
Dutch  style.77  Frangois-Ambroise  Didot  inFrance 
preferred  the  rounder  forms,  but  condensed  faces 
have  always  been  popular  in  France.  The  French 
old-style,  the  English-face  and  the  Elzevir  are 
often  preferred  by  French  publishers  for  books, 
but  the  thin  form  is  still  selected  for  newspapers, 
pamphlets,  magazines,  and  all  the  ordinary  forms 
of  printing.  Modern  French  taste  inclines  to  a 


216  Compressed-face 

greater  lightness  of  stem,  but  the  general  form  of 
the  condensed  style  has  not  been  seriously  changed. 
One  variety,  having  ascenders  and  descenders  of 
great  length,  known  as  the  poetic-face,  had  a  great 
popularity  when  Lamartine,  Hugo,  and  De  Musset 
wrote  in  verse.  The  merit  of  the  letter  was  in  its 
delicacy  and  thinness,  which  enabled  the  printer  to 
put  on  a  narrow  page  twelve  syllables  in  one  line 
of  large-faced  type.  Although  not  in  fashion  as 
it  has  been,  it  is  still  used  in  many  French  offices. 
The  face  shown  on  this  page  is  an  American 
adaptation  of  a  prevailing  French  fashion.  The 
lower-case  letters  are  over  high,  necessarily  mak- 


ALEXANDER  ANDEKSON,  the  father  of  wood 
engraving  in  America,  was  born  in  New  York, 
21st  April,  1775.  Although  a  qualified  student 
and  a  licensed  practitioner  of  medicine,  he 
preferred  the  art  of  engraving,  beginning  his 
work  when  but  twelve  years  of  age  on  bits  of 
copper  and  type-metal.  He  was  entirely  self- 
taught  ;  but  he  accepted  the  blocks  of  Bewick 
as  his  models  of  style.  For  eighty  years  he 
was  a  diligent  worker.  He  made  many  blocks 
of  more  than  ordinary  merit.  LANSING,  MOR- 
GAN and  HALL  were  his  pupils.  He  died  in 
Jersey  City,  17th  January, 


Compressed-face  on  long-primer  body,  leaded. 
George  Bruce's  Son  &  Co. 


Influence  ofBodoni  217 

ing  short  ascenders,  dwarfing  the  capitals,  and  en- 
larging small  capitals.  The  characters  are  closely 
fitted;  the  serifs  of  contiguous  stems  often  con- 
nect; the  stems  are  thin,  and  the  hair-lines  are 
needlessly  protracted.  Although  this  style  is  pre- 
ferred in  France  and  Spanish  America,  it  is  not  a 
favorite  in  the  United  States.  Yet  it  is  a  remark- 
ably readable  letter,  and  were  it  not  for  the  deli- 
cacy of  its  connecting  serifs  would  be  durable. 
The  lower-case  letters  are  large  and  clear  even  in 
their  compressed  form.  To  English  and  Ameri- 
can eyes  its  great  defect  is  the  reduced  height  of 
the  capital  letters.  Its  grayness  of  color  makes 
it  a  good  letter  for  contrast  in  texts  that  have 
wood-cut  illustrations. 

No  type-founder  has  changed  the  form  and  effect 
of  roman  letter  more  than  Bodoni  of  Parma.  His 
first  specimen  of  1771  shows  that  he  New  forms 
had  carefully  studied  the  best  French  ofBodoni 
types  of  that  period,  but  it  shows  also  the  hand  of 
an  innovator.  He  made  his  new  faces  rounder 
and  lighter,  and  of  greater  openness  and  delicacy. 
The  round  letters  of  the  lower-case  were  unusu- 
ally short  for  the  body,  with  ascenders  and  de- 
scenders so  long  that  the  composed  types  had  the 
appearance  of  leaded  matter.  Excessive  care  was 
given  to  the  correct  drawing  of  curves  and  ovals. 
Serifs  were  long  and  flat ;  hair-lines  had  unusual 
length  and  sharpness.  He  delighted  in  little  graces 
which  struck  every  reader  by  their  novelty.  These 

28 


218       Eighteenth-century  French-face 

mannerisms  prevented  other  founders  from  faith- 
fully copying  his  forms,  but  all  of  them  have  been 
influenced  by  his  style.  He  set  the  fashion  for 
light-faces  and  round  forms,  and  for  that  imitation 
of  copperplate  effects  which  has  so  seriously  dam- 
aged the  appearance  of  the  books  of  this  century. 
Firmin-Didot  of  Paris,  equally  able  as  printer 
and  type-founder,  undertook  the  difficult  task  of 


FIRMIN-DIDOT,  the  second  son  of 
Ambroise,  and  brother  to  Pierre, 
was  born  in  Paris,  i4th  April,  1764, 
anddied24thApril,i836.  Hewasan 
expert  type-founder,  and  a  skilled 
printer.  The  neat  types  of  several 
of  his  father's  editions  were  cut  by 
his  hand.  He  did  good  work  for 
the  development  of  stereotyping  and 
map-making.  He  was  appointed 
printer  to  the  King  and  to  the  French 
Institute,  and  was  decorated  with 
the  medal  of  the  Legion  of  Honor. 
His  portrait  is  in  the  gallery  of  the 
Louvre,  and  his  bust  is  in  the  hall  of 
the  National  Printing  Office,  Paris. 


Eighteenth-century  French-face  on  body  12,  solid. 
Gustave  Mayeur,  Paris. 


Engraver's  Hair-line-face  219 

making  a  bolder  type  with  the  round  form,  sharp 
lines,  and  true  curves  of  Bodoni.  His  first  face 
was  an  obese  letter  of  harsh  contrasts,  for  it  op- 
posed thick  stems  to  feeble  hair-lines  and  fragile 
serifs.  After  being  out  of  fashion  for  sixty  years, 
this  Didot  style  was  revived  by  Mayeur,  who  has 
faithfully  reproduced  its  general  effect.  Other  re- 
productions of  the  different  styles  proposed  by 
Didot  are  made  by  several  founders  of  Paris. 


JOSEPH  ALEXANDER  ADAMS;  engraver  on 
wood,  was  born  at  New  Germantown,  New  Jersey, 
in  1808.  He  died  about  1870.  In  his  boyhood 
he  was  taught  the  trade  of  a  printer  in  which  he 
excelled ;  but  he  preferred  and  followed  the  busi- 
ness of  engraving  on  wood.  About  1840  he  ar- 
ranged with  HARPER  &  BROTHERS  for  publication  by 
that  firm  of  an  edition  of  the  Bible;  he  to  furnish 
the  engravings  and  control  the  printing.  On  this 
work  he  developed  the  method  of  overlaying  and 
making-ready  woodcuts  that  now  prevails  in  the 
United  States.  For  this  work  he  invented  the  pro- 
cess of  electrotyping  woodcuts.  Four-  and  six-roller 
Adams  presses  were  first  made  at  his  suggestion. 


Engraver's  hair-line  on  long-primer  body,  solid. 
George  Bruce's  Son  &  Co. 

The  engraver's  hair-line  was  often  used  in  books 
about  fifty  years  ago  for  quoted  mottos  in  titles, 
for  summaries  of  chapters,  and  for  sub-headings  in 
books  and  pamphlets  intended  to  show  a  feminine 
elegance  or  refinement.  Although  a  well-drawn 


220  Round-faces 

and  carefully  cut  letter,  it  has  been  supplanted  by 
other  forms  of  light-face  much  inferior  in  merit. 

Condensed  forms  of  letter  have  always  found 
most  favor  with  publishers  of  small-margined  and 

Decline  of  double-Columned  OCtavOS,  with  the  re- 
thin  and  con-  printers  of  standard  books  in  shabby 
d faces  forms^  an(j  ^^  inexperienced  news- 
paper proprietors  who  mistakenly  attempt  to 
crowd  too  much  matter  into  a  given  space.  Their 
judgment  has  been  overruled.  Intelligent  book- 
buyers  resent  this  parsimony  in  type  and  margin, 
and  call  for  the  round  and  open  faces  which  are 
now  regarded  as  the  more  suitable  for  books  of 
merit.  The  illustrations  on  these  facing  pages 


GEORGE  CLYMER,  inventor  and 
manufacturer  of  the  once  celebrated 
Columbian  printing  press,  was  born  in 
Bucks  County,  Pennsylvania,  in  the 
year  1754.  Clymer  at  a  very  early  age 
had  earned  good  repute  as  a  scientific 
and  skilful  mechanic.  In  1817  he  in- 
troduced his  Columbian  press  in  Eng- 
land, where  it  was  highly  commended. 
He  died  in  London  in  1834. 


Round-face  on  pica  body,  leaded. 
George  Bruce's  Son  &  Co. 


Bound-faces  221 


HORACE  WELLS,  the  pioneer  of  type- 
founding  in  Cincinnati,  was  born  at  Hart- 
ford in  1797,  and  at  the  age  of  sixteen  was 
apprenticed  to  a  cabinet-maker.  In  1820 
he  was  selected  to  superintend  the  wood- 
working department  of  the  foundry  estab- 
lished in  Cincinnati  by  Elihu  White,  and 
now  known  as  the  Cincinnati  Type  Foundry, 
the  first  types  in  which  were  cast  July  4  of 
that  year.  In  this  foundry  he  gradually  ac- 
quired a  practical  knowledge  of  the  details 
of  type-making,  and  also  attained  some  dis- 
tinction as  a  punch-cutter.  He  became  the 
general  manager,  and  ultimately  the  pro- 
prietor, of  the  foundry.  He  died  in  1851. 


Round-face  on  long-primer  body,  leaded. 
Farmer,  Little  &  Co. 

are  fair  exhibits  of  a  prevailing  fancy  for  round- 
faces.  When  new,  carefully  printed  and  judi- 
ciously used,  the  round-faces  produce  Round-faces 
a  pleasing  effect,  but  many  of  them  of  li^> linea 
are  too  frail  for  general  use.  Sharp  and  thin  lines 
are  not  in  so  much  favor  as  they  were  thirty  years 
ago.  The  round-faces  with  sharp  lines  are  effec- 
tive only  when  printed  in  the  form  of  leaded  or 
double-leaded  composition  with  broad  white  mar- 
gins. When  set  solid  and  printed  on  ordinary 
paper  with  narrow  margins  they  are  unpleasing. 


222  Light-faces 

The  illustration  on  this  page  is  of  an  extremely 
light  face  of  decided  merit,  but  which  is  too  thin 
A  skeleton  and  too  light  to  be  used  as  a  text-type 
round-face  for  descriptive  matter  set  solid.  It 
shows  to  best  advantage  in  leaded  or  double- 
leaded  poetry,  or  in  any  work  which  has  broad 
margins  and  large  spaces  of  white.  It  finds  fre- 
quent employment  in  the  titles  or  descriptions 
of  plates  when  these  titles  are  printed,  as  is  the 
fashion,  on  thin  paper  facing  the  plate,  but  in  any 
place  it  is  a  strain  on  ordinary  eyesight. 


ELIHU  WHITE,  who  established  the  type- 
foundry  now  known  as  that  of  Farmer,  Little 
&  Co.,  was  born  at  Bolton,  Connecticut,  27th 
July,  1773.  His  first  business  was  that  of  a 
bookseller  and  publisher.  In  association  with 
a  Mr.  Wing  he  undertook  to  make  type,  with- 
out any  knowledge  whatever  of  the  theory  or 
practice  of  the  art  In  1810  he  took  his  un- 
developed type-making  tools  to  New  York, 
and  soon  after  began  a  prosperous  business. 
With  William  M.  Johnson  of  Hempstead,  he 
gave  much  time  to  the  development  of  a  type- 
casting machine.  He  established  foundries  in 
Buffalo  and  Cincinnati.  He  died  in  1836. 


Light-face  on  small-pica  body,  leaded. 
Farmer,  Little  &  Co. 


Broad  Form  of  Light-face  223 


RICHARD  MARCH  HOB  was  born  in 
New  York,  12th  September,  1812,  and 
died  in  Florence,  Italy,  7th  June,  1886. 
At  the  age  of  fifteen  he  "began  to  work 
in  his  father's  printing-press  manufac- 
tory ;  at  twenty-one  he  was  the  head  of 
the  business.  He  made  many  improve- 
ments in  printing  machinery.  His 
first  notable  invention  was  the  Type- 
revolving  Rotary -printing  machine, 
patented  in  1847.  His  latest  achieve- 
ment was  the  Web-perfecting  printing 
machine,  which  prints  from  an  endless 
roll,  cuts,  folds,  and  delivers  perfect  pa- 
pers at  rates  of  speed,  varying  with  the 
size  of  the  sheet,  from  fifteen  to  sixty 
thousand  copies  an  hour. 


Broad  form  of  light-face  on  brevier  body,  double  leaded. 
Farmer,  Little  &  Co. 

The  face  on  this  page,  which  is  as  broad  as  it 
is  light,  is  seldom  used  as  a  text-letter  for  stan- 
dard books.  Its  delicacy  disqualifies  it  Broad  form 
for  general  use,  but  it  is  an  effective  of  light-face 
letter  in  fine  pamphlets,  catalogues,  and  orna- 
mental job-work,  when  the  composed  lines  have 
been  liberally  widened  with  leads.  The  larger 
sizes  are  used  for  book  titles,  running  head  lines, 
and  as  a  display  letter. 


224  French  Light-face 

The  prevailing  fashion  of  light-face  in  France 
is  entirely  distinct  from  any  used  in  Great  Britain 
or  America.  French  type-founders  of  the  present 
time  lean  to  English  forms,  but  that  they  have 
not  freed  themselves  entirely  from  the  manner- 
isms of  the  old  French  masters  may  be  seen  in 
the  square,  trim,  and  compact  appearance  of  the 
specimen  subjoined.  Note  that  the  y,  S,  a,  and  r 
seem  to  be  entirely  new  forms. 


AMBROISE  FIRMIN-DIDOT,  the  son  of 
Firmin,  and  a  great-grandson  of  the  foun- 
der of  the  house,  was  born  at  Paris,  20th 
December,  1790,  and  died  22d  February, 
1876.  He  was  eminent  as  a  printer  and 
as  the  publisher  of  famous  books ;  was  a 
punch-cutter  and  type-founder,  the  presi- 
dent of  several  typographical  societies, 
printer  to  the  Institute,  a  diligent  and  in- 
telligent collector  of  books,  a  member  of 
the  Municipal  Council  of  Paris,  repeatedly 
juror  at  Universal  Expositions,  officer  of 
the  Legion  of  Honor,  author  and  translator 
of  many  books  and  pamphlets  of  authority, 
and  beyond  question  the  most  learned 
and  ablest  typographer  of  France. 


Modern  French  light-face  on  body  10,  leaded. 
Gustave  Mayeur,  Paris. 


Broad-faces  225 

Publishers  of  newspapers  have  had  unsatisfac- 
tory experience  with  every  variety  of  condensed 
face.  They  testify,  as  do  all  book  print-  wh  broad. 
ers,  that  condensed  types  wear  out  too  faces  were 
soon,  and  show  their  wear  when  but  half  ^reduced 
worn  in  muddy  presswork  and  indistinct  figures 
and  characters.  Fair  trial  has  thoroughly  dem- 
onstrated that  the  saving  of  space  made  by  the 
selection  of  a  lean  letter  is  not  a  sufficient  offset 
to  bad  presswork  and  needless  wear.  Publishers 
now  go  to  the  other  extreme,  and  require  faces  of 
unusual  breadth,  which  American  type-foundries 
furnish  in  great  variety.  The  specimen  here  shown 
is  a  fair  example  of  a  recent  style. 


GEORGE  P.  GORDON,  printer  and  inven- 
tor, was  born  in  Salem,  New  Hampshire, 
21st  April,  1810,  and  died  in  Brooklyn,  N.  Y., 
27th  January,  1878.  The  needs  of  his  busi- 
ness, as  a  master-printer  of  New  York  city, 
induced  him  to  make  improvements  on  the 
inefficient  small  printing  machines  then  in 
general  use.  In  August,  1851,  he  patented 
the  first  form  of  the  machine  now  known 
as  the  Gordon  Press,  which  ever  since  has 
been  approved  of  in  this  country,  and  under 
other  names  in  Europe.  He  was  granted 
more  than  fifty  patents  for  improvements 
in  printing  machinery. 


A  broad-face  on  10-point  body,  solid. 

James  Conner's  Sons. 
29 


226  Broad-faces 

Many  broad-faces  have  short  descenders  and 
long  serifs  to  fill  the  gaps  made  by  widely  sepa- 
Fauitsof  rated  stems.  In  some  of  them  the  ex- 
broad-face  pansion  of  the  letter  is  so  great  that 
there  is  no  fair  relief  of  white  space  between  the 
lines.  The  impression  required  for  all  over-broad 
faces,  with  shortened  ascenders  and  without  due 
relief  of  white  between  lines,  must  be  nearly  as 
severe  as  that  given  to  the  old  fat-faces.  Book 
printers  and  publishers  have  always  objected  to 
over-broad  faces  as  mechanically  incorrect.  The 
wide  separation  of  stems  required  by  this  style 
makes  more  difficult  the  proper  fitting  of  bodies. 


JAMES  HAEPEE,  the  founder  of  the  print- 
ing and  publishing  firm  now  known  as  that 
of  HARPER  &  BROTHERS,  was  born  in  New- 
town,  Long  Island,  N.  Y.,  13th  April,  1795, 
and  died  in  the  city  of  New  York,  27th 
March,  1869.  For  many  years  the  business 
was  managed  by  James  and  his  three  broth- 
ers :  JOHN,  who  was  born  22d  January,  1797, 
and  died  22d  April,  1875  $  JOSEPH  WESLEY, 
who  was  born  25th  December,  1801,  and  died 
14th  February,  1870  ;  FLETCHER,  who  was 
born  31st  January,  1806,  and  died  29th  May, 
1877.  James  fiarper  was  elected  mayor  of 
the  city  of  New  York  in  1844.  The  business 
is  now  managed  by  their  sons  and  grandsons. 


Broad-face  on  10-point  body,  solid. 
MacKellar,  Smiths  &  Jordan  Co. 


Expanded-face  227 


ISAAC  ADAMS,  inventor  of  the 
Adams  power  printing  press, 
was  born  in  Rochester,  Ne~w 
Hampshire,  in  18O3,  and  died 
in  Sandwich,  New  Hampshire, 
19th  July,  1883.  His  first  press, 
with  frame  of  wood,  was  made 
in  1828.  It  received  many  im- 
provements in  1834,  and  ^vas 
evert  then  accepted  as  the  best 
press  for  book  printing.  About 
1836  he  formed  a  partnership 
with  his  brother  Seth  (born  in 
18O7,  died  in  1873)  for  the  man- 
ufacture of  the  presses,  which 
partnership  ended  in  1856.  &  &  & 


Expanded-face  on  brevier  body,  double  leaded. 
George  Bruce's  Son  &  Co. 

Although  very  broad  or  expanded  faces  are  un- 
acceptable to  publishers  of  books,  they  are  really 
needed  in  any  form  of  composition  in  which  it 
seems  necessary  to  fill  the  space  as  to  width  more 
than  as  to  height.  They  give  a  clearness  to  print 
which  is  not  to  be  had  by  the  use  of  capitals  or 
of  any  other  form  of  letter,  and  they  are  entirely 
free  from  the  appearance  of  bold  or  vulgar  dis- 
play. Job  printers  use  them  to  good  advantage 
in  circulars,  catalogues,  and  fine  pamphlets. 


228  Riverside-face 

Some  publishers  and  many  printers  have  tired 
of  light-faces.  Book  critics  have  rightfully  corn- 
weak  types  plained  of  a  deficiency  in  blackness  of 
make  weak  ink  in  recent  books.  In  much  of  this 
presswork  objectionable  presswork  the  fault  is  due 
more  to  weak  types  than  to  weak  ink.  Under  the 
conditions  that  control  ordinary  presswork  it  is 
not  possible  to  show  vivid  blackness  on  thin  lines 
that  will  not  hold  the  needed  ink.  Surrounded  by 
an  excess  of  white  the  thin  lines  must  seem  com- 
paratively gray.  Printers  have  also  objected  to 
types  with  sharp  hair-lines  that  are  soon  flawed  or 
crushed.  The  desire  of  the  proprietor  of  the  River- 
side Press  for  a  bolder-faced  type  which  would  re- 
ceive a  proper  amount  of  black,  and  yield  a  fair 


HENRY  O.  HOUGHTON,  printer  and  publisher, 
was  born  in  Sutton,  Vermont,  30th  April,  1823. 
He  was  taught  printing  in  Burlington,  but  devoted 
his  spare  hours  to  study.  In  1846  he  graduated 
from  the  University  of  Vermont.  After  service  as 
a  reporter  on  a  Boston  newspaper  he  established,  in 
1852,  the  "  Riverside  Press  "  at  Cambridge,  Massa- 
chusetts, under  the  name  of  Henry  O.  Houghton  & 
Co.  In  1872  he  was  elected  mayor  of  Cambridge. 
In  1878  he  acquired  the  ownership  of  the  business 
of  the  old  publishing  house  of  Ticknor  &  Fields. 
The  business  is  now  carried  on  under  the  name  of 
Houghton,  Mifflin  &  Co.,  Boston  and  New  York. 


Eiverside-face  on  long-primer  body,  solid. 
Phelps,  Dalton  &  Co. 


Firm-face  of  Broad  Form  229 

measure  of  wear,  led  to  the  cutting  of  this  River- 
side-face. His  request  for  a  complete  series  was 
refused  by  one  type-foundry  for  the  rea-  The  River- 
son  that  it  could  not  be  sold.  Another  side-face 
founder  cut  a  full  series  for  book-work  which  has 
been  used  with  best  results.  In  this  series  the 
stems  of  the  letters  are  not  only  thicker  but  longer, 
and  the  hair-line  has  a  visible  thickness. 

These  good  features  are  shown  more  clearly  in 
a  new  variety  of  firm-face  of  broad  form,  which  is 
designed  for  hard  usage  on  newspaper  work.  The 
hair-lines  are  unusually  thick,  the  serifs  are  short, 
and  will  successfully  resist  the  wear  of  the  mould- 
ing-brush, the  lye-brush,  and  the  proof -planer.  It 
will  take  ink  readily,  and  make  a  readable  print 
without  undue  impression. 


THOMAS  MACKELLAR  was  born  in  the  city  of 
New  York,  12th  August,  1812,  and  was  taught  the 
trade  of  a  printer  in  the  printing  house  of  J.  &  J. 
Harper.  In  1833  he  was  proof-reader  in  the  type 
and  stereotype  foundry  of  Johnson  &  Smith  of 
Philadelphia.  When  Johnson  retired,  he  became 
the  senior  partner  in  the  new  firm  of  MacKellar, 
Smiths  &  Jordan.  He  is  the  author  of  the  "Amer- 
ican Printer,"  and  for  many  years  was  the  editor 
of  the  "Typographic  Advertiser,"  and  the  witty 
and  wise  "Specimen  Book"  of  the  MacKellar, 
Smiths  &  Jordan  Co.  Selections  from  his  contri- 
butions to  journals  were  published  in  Philadelphia, 
1873,  under  the  title  of  "Rhymes  Atween  Times." 


Firm-face  of  broad  form  on  8-point  body,  solid. 
MacKellar,  Smiths  &  Jordan  Co. 


230      Why  Small  Types  are  Indistinct 

Students  and  book  and  newspaper  printers  are 
fully  agreed  as  to  the  worthlessness  of  the  sharp 
hair-line.  Punch-cutters  and  job  printers  who  try 
to  compete  with  lithographers  and  copperplate- 
engravers  seem  to  be  the  only  typographers  who 
care  to  perpetuate  this  feminine  feature  which 
has  so  seriously  degraded  modern  printing.  To 
make  a  readable  type  the  sharp  contrast  between 
thin  and  thick  lines  should  be  avoided ;  the  hair- 
line should  have  a  visible  thickness  even  in  small 
sizes,  for  this  increased  thickness  is  really  needed 
as  much  to  give  legibility  as  to  prevent  wear. 
The  continued  popularity  of  the  old-style  is  due 
more  to  the  clearness  produced  by  its  strong  lines 
and  serifs  than  to  its  quaintness  of  form. 

The  defects  of  the  ordinary  faces  of  roman  type 
are  most  noticeable  in  the  smaller  sizes.  Texts 
Light  lines  ^n  Peai§l  or  diamond  are  hard  to  print, 
cause  weak  Too  much  ink  makes  the  letters  thick 

presswork       and  muddy.    too   ifttle  jnk  makes  them 

gray  and  indistinct.  Even  when  inked  with  dis- 
cretion, the  effect  of  presswork  from  small  types 
is  that  of  feebleness.  Small  types  show  little  of 
the  stem  and  still  less  of  the  serif  and  hair-line ; 
they  have  not  surface  enough  to  carry  a  good 
body  of  ink.  To  remedy  this  fault,  Quantin  of 
Paris  had  made  for  his  miniature  editions1  a  re- 
modeled light-face  antique,  in  which  all  the  lines 
were  nearly  of  uniform  thickness. 

l  "  Horace :  odes  et  e"podes,"  24mo,  illuminated.     Paris,  1883. 


Motteroz-face  231 

The  introduction  of  the  Riverside-face  of  the 
late  Henry  O.  Hough  ton,  the  Gushing  style,  the 
"  Golden  type  "  of  William  Morris,  the  Jenson  face 
of  Phinney,  and  the  Century  face  of  the  De  Vinne 
Press,  are  the  practical  protests  of  experienced 
printers  against  the  growing  effeminacy  of  modern 
types.  Readers  of  failing  eyesight  rightfully  ask 
for  types  that  are  plain  and  unequivocal,  that  re- 
veal the  entire  character  at  a  glance,  and  are  not 
discerned  with  difficulty  by  body-marks  joined  to 
hair-lines  and  serifs  that  are  but  half  seen  or  not 
seen  at  all.  The  Morris  and  Jenson  styles  may  be 
needlessly  bold  for  readers  of  excellent  eyesight, 
but  they  are  attempts  at  an  improvement  in  the 
right  direction,  which  will  be  maintained. 

The  Motteroz-face  on  the  next  page  is  another 
attempt  at  a  letter  that  may  be  read  more  easily. 
It  has  too  many  French  peculiarities  to  commend 
it  to  readers  who  have  been  used  to  English  mod- 
els, but  every  reader  must  admit  the  propriety  of 
some  of  its  innovations.  It  is  not  too  bold  or 
black,  and  is  notably  round  and  clear.  Characters 
like  s,  a,  r,  g,  which  always  have  been  pinched, 
in  deference  to  type-founding  traditions,  are  here 
made  of  full  breadth,  and  are  recognized  with 
ease.  The  high  strong  arch  of  the  m  and  n,  and 
other  features  of  the  old-style,  have  been  retained. 
Here  its  designer's  reforms  have  stopped.  He  has 
not  thickened  the  hair-line,  which  is  as  sharp  as 
before,  nor  has  he  angled  or  bracketed  the  serif. 


232  Motteroz-face 

Although  the  type-founders  and  printers  of  France 
object  to  its  departures  from  the  accepted  stan- 
dards of  form,  it  has  been  chosen  by  the  Municipal 
Council  of  Paris  as  the  most  readable  letter  for  its 
school-books  and  official  publications.  It  is  made 
for  and  used  by  Motteroz  only,  and  is  not  for  sale. 


CLAUDE  MOTTEROZ  was  born  in 
1830,atRomaneche(Saone-et-Loire). 
As  the  descendant  of  an  old  family  of 
printers  he  was  taught  printing,  to 
which  he  added  the  practice  of  other 
crafts.  In  1874 he  established  in  Paris 
a  large  atelier  for  photographic  repro- 
ductions by  lithography,  about  which 
he  has  written  two  treatises  deemed 
of  high  authority/  In  1876  he  devised 
this  form  of  roman  letter.  He  is  the 
printer  and  publisher  of  many  school- 
books  which  have  been  adopted  by 
the  Municipal  Council  of  Paris.  As 
proprietor  of  large  printing-houses, 
and  as  a  contributor  to  ulTmprim- 
erie"  for  many  years,  he  has  exercised 
a  marked  influence  upon  the  develop- 
ment of  French  typography. 


The  Motteroz-face,  on  corps  11  (a  large  small-pica),  solid. 
By  permission  of  M.  Motteroz. 


Peculiarities  of  the  Motteroz-face     233 


The  accompanying  illustration  is  intended  to 
show  the  different  methods  pursued  by  Didot  and 
by  Motteroz.  In  the  Di- 
dot style  note  the  greater 
length  and  sharpness  of 
the  hair-line,  the  short- 
ness of  the  serif,  the  stiff 
uprightness  of  the  stems, 
especially  in  the  interior 
of  the  O.  In  the  Motteroz 
style  note  the  strength  of 
the  arch  in  n  and  U,  the 
comparative  shortness  of 
hair-line  and  the  greater  decision  given  to  the  O. 
M.  Motteroz  claims  that  this  face  on  body  5  is 
more  readable  than  the  ordinary  faces  on  body  6. 


n  no 

As  made  by  Didot. 

uno 


As  made  by  Motteroz. 


Tous  ces  grotesques  mots,  Gaillarde,  Trim^giste, 

Gros-texte,  Gros-canon,  fastidieuse  liste 

De  vains  noms  qu'ont  ported  tant  de  types  divers, 

Et  dont  le  seul  r^cit  attristerait  mes  vers, 

Noms  qui  de  leur  grosseur  et  de  leur  difference  , 

N'ont  pu  donner  encore  aucune  connaissance, 

11  sut  les  transformer  en  d'autres  plus  heureux 

Qui  marquent  clairement  tant  de  rapports  entre  eux. 

Son  nouveau  typometre  offre  une  regie  sure: 

Ghaque  type  s'accroft  par  egale  mesure, 

Et  la  gradation  qu'avec  art  il  suivit 

Est  aussi  juste  a  1'oeil  qu'elle  est  claire  a  1'esprit. 

PIERRE  DIDOT.    "  Epf  tre  sur  les  progres  de  rimprimerie.' 


Motteroz-face  on  body  5,  leaded. 
By  permission  of  M.  Motteroz. 


234  Novel  Forms  Unacceptable 

The  specimens  of  roman  face  here  shown  are 
necessarily  incomplete,  for  it  is  not  practicable 
in  this  work  to  illustrate  all  the  styles  made  here 
and  abroad.  Every  large  type-foundry  makes  at 
least  three,  and  sometimes  twelve  distinct  faces  of 
roman  letter  on  the  bodies  most  in  use.  Although 
distinct,  the  variations  in  many  of  these  faces  are 
too  slight  to  be  perceived  by  the  inexpert.  The 
illustrations  previously  presented  are  sufficient  to 
show  the  styles  that  have  most  character.  They 
show  also  the  drift  of  popular  taste,  and  the  lines 
on  which  efforts  at  improvement  are  being  made. 

New  styles  are  not  always  the  outcome  of  ca- 
price; often  they  are  made  to  avoid  difficulties. 
When  book  printing  had  to  be  done 

New  styles  *  „  ^ 

designed  to  on  cylinders  the  long  ascenders  or  J3o- 
conform  to  dolli  were  abandoned,  for  they  could 
1  not  properly  resist  the  force  applied. 
When  stereotyping  had  to  be  done  by  the  papier- 
mache  process,  which  requires  the  beating  of  types 
with  a  stiff  brush,  the  long  and  sharp  serif  was 
supplanted  by  one  that  was  short  or  stubby.  The 
straightened  beaks  and  fewer  kerns  of  modern- 
faces  are  so  made  to  insure  their  proper  mould- 
ing in  wax  or  plaster.  The  thicker  hair-line,  the 
bracketed  serif,  the  more  open  form  and  deeper 
counter  of  some  modern  styles  are  necessary  for 
a  greater  durability  and  legibility. 

It  is  remarkable  that  the  general  form  of  the 
roman  letter  has  changed  so  little.  There  is  con- 


Defects  of  some  Characters  235 

tinual  demand  for  novelty  in  letters  which  type- 
founders find  difficult  to  meet.  Some  of  the  pro- 
posed novelties  vary  but  little  from  Allimportant 
the  regular  models  5  some  have  the  au-  changes  are 
thority  of  Bodoni  or  of  Didot;  some  ^ectionabie 
are  clever  imitations  of  the  styles  of  medieval  cal- 
ligraphers  of  eminent  ability,  but  every  attempt 
at  ornamenting  roman  letter  is  invariably  rejected 
by  authors  and  experienced  printers.  For  any 
serious  innovation  high  authority  is  disregarded ; 
a  marked  variation  of  form  is  enough  to  forbid 
its  use  in  books.  However  meritorious  the  new 
form  may  be,  it  can  be  used  only  by  job  printers. 

The  twenty-six  letters  of  the  roman  alphabet 
imperfectly  represent  the  vocal  sounds  of  any  lan- 
guage, but  every  attempt  to  increase  the  number 
of  characters  has  failed.  Authors  of  dictionaries, 
who  best  understand  the  difficulties  of  the  sub- 
ject, are  content  when  they  add  accents  or  dia- 
critical marks  to  the  letters.  It  is  not  probable 
that  new  characters  will  be  introduced.  Phono- 
type  utilizes  all  the  old  letters  and  adds  several 
new  characters,  but  there  are  no  indications  that 
its  new  alphabet  will  supersede  the  old. 

Some  of  the  characters  now  provided  may  be 
abandoned.  The  beak  given  to  the  f  compels  the 
making  of  five  distinct  characters,  fi>fl,  ff,ffi,ffl, 
to  avoid  kerns.  Some  founders  are  now  cutting 
the  f  without  a  kern,  and  this  improvement  should 
make  all  the  doublets  unnecessary. 


236  Defects  in  Small  Capitals 

Small  capitals  are  often  unsatisfactory.  Accord- 
ing to  the  rules  laid  down  for  emphasis  or  display, 
weakness  a  wor&  in  small  capitals  should  be  more 
of  small  prominent  than  one  in  italic;  but  small 
capitals  are  usually  made  thin  and  weak, 
so  that  really  they  are  of  inferior  prominence. 
Some  publishers  prohibit  all  small  capitals  in  the 
text,  preferring  to  make  any  distinction  they  need 
by  using  the  lighter  faces  of  antique  or  clarendon. 
This  weakness  comes  from  cutting  small  capitals 
of  the  same  height  as  the  round  letters  of  a  small 
lower-case.  In  this  restricted  space  it  is  not  pos- 
sible to  cut  small  capitals  of  becoming  prominence 
without  widening  the  letters  to  a  degree  which 
makes  them  bad  mates  for  the  large  capitals.  The 
only  remedy  is  to  make  them  higher.  As  usually 
made,  small  capitals  are  difficult  to  cut,  as  well  as 
ineffective  in  print.  This  difficulty  tempts  foun- 
ders to  make  one  set  of  small  capitals  serve  for 
two  or  more  distinct  faces.  An  inexpert  can  sel- 
dom detect  the  mismating.  Properly  made,  after 
the  fashion  of  the  small  capitals  now  provided  for 
some  faces  of  ornamental  letter,  a  higher  small  cap- 
ital of  roman  would  be  much  more  freely  used 
in  book-work.  The  difference  between  the  small- 
capital  and  the  lower-case  O,  S,  W  is  slight,  and  to 
be  detected  only  when  the  two  forms  are  put  in 
contrast.  To  prevent  a  mixing  of  the  two  sorts, 
a  special  nick  ploughed  in  the  body  of  the  small 
capital  would  be  an  important  improvement. 


Fashions  in  Arabic  Figures          237 

Arabic  figures  have  been  changed  more  than 
any  other  characters  of  the  font.  Some  of  the 
forms  made  by  the  early  printers  cannot  Fag^ng 
be  deciphered  by  an  unschooled  reader,  in  arable 
Their  oriental  irregularities  were  gradu-  flgur( 
ally  reduced  to  a  reasonable  degree  of  uniformity, 
so  that  the  old-style  figures  made  by  all  founders 
of  the  eighteenth  century  differed  but  little  as 
to  form,  and  were  never  misleading  or  uncertain. 
Each  figure  had  a  distinct  form  and  definite  posi- 
tion :  the  1,2,  and  O  were  the  short  characters, 
occupying  the  middle  of  the  line;  the  6  and  8 
were  ascending,  and  the  3,  4.,  ^,  7,  and  Q  de- 
scending characters.  In  a  text  of  lower-case,  or 
in  a  large  table  of  figures,  one  figure  could  rarely 
be  mistaken  for  another,  even  when  the  figures 
were  worn  and  bruised.  That  irregularity  of  form 
which  makes  figures  distinct  in  a  text  of  lower- 
case is  a  positive  defect  when  they  are  put  in  a 
mass  of  even-lined  roman  capitals.  In  this  posi- 
tion the  old-style  1,  2,  and  0  are  too  small:  they 
look  like  wrong  fonts.  Perception  of  this  defect 
prompted  the  designers  of  modern-cut  letter  to 
make  all  figures  of  the  same  height,  and  put  them 
in  line.  This  innovation  has  been  accepted  as  an 
improvement  which  will  probably  endure. 

To  facilitate  the  composition  of  tables,  figures 
have  been  cast  on  the  n-set,  which  is  wide  enough 
for  all  the  regular  characters  in  texts  of  lower- 
case, in  brevier  and  larger  bodies.  For  the  frac- 


238  Bad  Forms  of  Figures 

tions,  which  are  proper  adjuncts  of  the  regular 
figures,  this  n-set  is  too  narrow.  When  hurriedly 
Faults  of  priced  as  newspapers  must  be,  on  weak 
figures  of  paper  with  weak  ink,  the  fractions,  and 
small  size  sometimes  the  figures,  of  an  important 
table  are  often  choked  with  ink  and  made  indis- 
tinct. Founders  were  gradually  induced  to  make 
the  fractions  of  small  bodies  on  the  m-set.  This 
was  but  a  partial  improvement,  for  the  figures  were 
still  too  narrow.  The  difficulty  was  not  overcome 
until  the  figures  were  put  on  the  wider  set  of  two 
thick  spaces  or  two-thirds  of  an  em.  Some  foun- 
ders make  them  on  the  body  of  three-fifths  or  two- 
fifths  of  an  em.  These  broad  figures  are  used 
chiefly  by  newspapers,  and  to  some  extent  by  book 
printers  when  figures  are  required  in  lines  of  cap- 
itals. A  broad  figure  is  needed  for  capitals  as 
much  as  a  narrow  figure  for  lower-case. 

Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  improve  the 
form  of  modern  figures.  The  forms  of  Didot  here 
Figures  of  shown,  1234^67890,  are 
bad  form  probably  the  most  striking  innovation, 
but  they  have  not  been  accepted.  A  far  more  dis- 
agreeable form  has  been  made  popular  in  France, 
Belgium,  and  Holland.  Here  is  a 
figure  3  and  a  figure  5.  The  figure 
3  has  an  oblique  hair-line ;  the  fig- 
gure  5  has  a  straight  hair-line.  There 
is  no  other  line  of  difference.  When  these  hair- 
lines are  attached  to  fat-face  figures,  the  hair-lines 


55 


Signs     Quotation  Marks    Points     239 

are  practically  invisible  at  a  short  distance,  and  a 
confounding1  of  the  3  with  the  5  is  unavoidable. 

The  signs  of  £  for  pounds  and  of  $  for  dollars 
are  usually  made  on  an  irregular  set,  which  com- 
pels unnecessary  work  in  the  justification  of  nar- 
row columns  of  figures.  This  needless  labor  could 
be  avoided  by  putting  them  upon  the  n-set  or  the 
set  of  three-fourths  of  an  em. 

The  characters  required  to  indicate  a  quotation 
(reversed  commas  at  the  beginning,  and  apostro- 
phes at  the  close)  are  clumsy.  When  QUOtation 
the  commas  are  on  the  four-to-em  set,  marks  are 
and  the  apostrophes  on  the  five-to-em  un*>leasillg 
set,  this  inequality  makes  them  bad  mates.  Used 
singly  they  are  too  weak ;  used  in  pairs  they  pro- 
duce offensive  gaps  of  white  space.  The  French 
method  of  using  a  distinct  reversible  sign  for  quo- 
tations, which  is  put  in  the  middle  of  the  face,  is 
preferable  in  every  way. 2 

Italic  points  of  punctuation  are  objected  to  by 
those  who  maintain  that  letters  only  should  be  in 
italic,  and  that  points  should  not  be  inclined.  To 
use  upright  roman  points  only  makes  unsightly 
work.  There  is  a  real  need  for  inclined  points, 
although  they  are  too  often  used  unwisely. 

i  These  figures  are  often  used  logue.    There  is  no  excuse  for 

to  specify  paintings  in  foreign  these  figures.     Printers  should 

picture-galleries,  to  the  annoy-  join  with  founders  in  expelling 

ance  of  visitors,  who  frequently  them  from  typography, 

are  led  by  them  to  seek  a  wrong  2  See  these  signs  of  quotation 

reference  in  the  printed  cata-  in  the  French  type  on  page  203. 


240  Types  should  be  in  Series 

As  usually  made,  some  of  the  minor  signs  of 
the  font  could  be  improved :  the  *  is  too  weak, 

weakness  an(^  so  are  ^e  ^  t>  §•  These  signs  have 
of  the  minor  partially  been  supplanted  by  superior 
characters  figures  and  letters,  but  they  would  be 
more  freely  used  if  they  were  stronger.  The  ( 
and  [  provided  for  bold-faced  types  are  usually 
feeble.  On  the  contrary,  the  braces,  dashes,  and 
leaders  are  sometimes  too  thick  and  bold,  much 
inferior  to  the  neater  forms  of  the  French  foun- 
ders. Superior  figures  or  letters  are  often  too  light 
and  of  too  small  size.  The  diphthongs  86  and  06 
are  not  needed  for  words  purely  English,  but  their 
occurrence  in  Latin  compels  founders  to  provide 
them  for  the  five  series  of  a  complete  font.  These 
diphthongs,  M,  CE,  M,  CE,  SB,  OB,  ^E,  CE,  CB,  (£, 
find  so  little  employment  that  usually  they  are  as 
good  as  new  when  the  rest  of  the  font  is  worn  out. 
The  long  f,  with  its  doublets,  and  other  abbrevia- 
tions or  logotypes  of  the  early  printers,  have  been 
abandoned,  but  the  diphthongs  seem  to  be  firmly 
embedded  in  the  modern  alphabet. 

A  series  of  book-faces  should  embrace  sizes  from 
pica  to  pearl  inclusive;  a  series  of  newspaper-faces, 

A  tun  series  a11  sizes  from  bourgeois  to  agate  in- 
of  book- and  elusive.  Not  all  the  faces  here  shown 
as  specimens  are  made  in  complete  se- 
ries for  book-work,  but  those  that  are  most  used 
have  bodies  enough  for  an  ordinary  book-text. 
It  is  possible  now  to  set  text,  preface,  extracts, 


Scant  Variety  of  Large  Sizes         241 

™*  notes,  and  index  in  different  sizes  of  the  same 
fy[  face.  Sixty  years  ago  a  complete  series  of 
.  -  any  face  of  modern-cut  (the  fat-face  excepted) 
JVl  was  rare.  The  printer  of  that  period  was 

M    often  compelled  to  use  two  or  more  unlike 
faces  on  the  same  page ;  sometimes  four  or 
Mm  ore  in  the  same  volume,  always  with  dis- 
agreeable effect. l 
Type-founders  of  the  present  time  usu- 
Mally  stop  a  new  series  of  book  sizes  with 
the  body  of  pica,  alleging  that   Earity  of 
there  is  very  little  demand  for   romans  of 
Mthe  larger  sizes.     This  is  true,    Iar^e8ize 
but  the  deficient  demand  is  largely  due 
to  the  unsatisfactory  supply.     One  can 
buy  in  series  (but  not  so  complete  as  is 
needed)  the  Caslon  or  Elzevir  old-styles, 
but  these  quaint  forms  can  be  used  with 
propriety  in  but  a  limited  amount  of 
printing.    There  are  one  or  two  series 
of  light-faces  not  so  complete  which 
are  adapted  for  ornamental  typog- 
raphy only,  as  their  long  serifs  and 
faint  hair-lines  unfit  them  for  every- 
day practical  work.    Beyond  these 

1^  yl  !  "The  book-printing  of  the  present  day  is 

l^k  /U  disgraced  by  a  mixture  of  fat,  lean,  and  net- 

I  ^L         I  I  erogeneous  types,  which  to  the  eye  of  taste 

-     ^k      I  is  truly  disgusting;  and  it  may  perhaps  be 

^k  I  said  with  truth  that  a  much  greater  improve- 

\         ^f  ment  has  taken  place  in  the  printing  of  hand- 

"  bills  than  of  books."    Hansard,  p.  355. 
Elzevir. 
31 


•^     '     -*k- 

M 

M 


242         M ore  Sizes  Needed  for  Titles 

M    is  practically  nothing,  for  the  stiff  forms  of 

1*  r  Dr.  Fry  and  his  imitators,  which  still  keep  a 

place  in  too  many  specimen  books,  are  prac- 

\/T  tically  obsolete.     This  scant  supply  of  large 

sizes  seems  surprising  when  one  notes  the 
A/T  profusion  of  blacks,  scripts,  and  ornamentals 

on  large  bodies  in  the  specimen  books  of  all 

M  established  type-foundries.     The  excess  of 
display  letter  shows  that  job  printers  buy 
more  than  book  printers,  and  that  their 
IV  /I     wants  are  more  cared  for. 
-L  T  A        The  inadequate  provision  of  large  sizes 
of  roman  capitals  is  most  noticeable  in 
IV   /I    the  composition  of  book  titles,  for  which 
I  y  II    capitals  only  are  needed.    Book  titles,  al- 
ways difficult  to  compose  in  good  form, 
Mcall  for  many  sizes  and  for  a  closely 
graded   series  of  uniform  face.     This 
close  grading  with  strict  uniformity  is 
rare  in  a  series  of  modern-cut  two- 

Mline  letters.  As  a  rule  the  two-line 
types  provided  for  books  are  capri- 
ciously selected  by  founder  and  by 
printer,  with  insufficient  attention 
to  their  possible  disagreement  of 

Mface.  Some  are  a  trifle  fat,  others 
a  trifle  lean  ;  some  have  thick  and 
others  thin  stems;  some  have  flat 
and  long  and  others  short  and 
bracketed  serifs.  That  series  is 
Caslon. 


Why  Titles  are  Unsatisfactory       243 

M    rated  as  complete  which  embraces  all  the  reg- 
jyr    ular  bodies  from  two-line  diamond  to  two-line 
great-primer,  but  every  compositor  of  titles 
M   Soon  finds  that  these  are  not  enough.     He 
jy£  needs  intermediate  sizes  that  are  not  made 
by  any  type-founder;  he  needs  capitals  that 
JM     are  smaller,  and  two-lines  that  are  larger 
than  any  in  the  series.    As  substitutes  -for 
the  deficient  faces  he  has  to  resort  to  the 
~\/T  capitals  and  small  capitals  of  ordinary  text- 
types,  to  two-lines  of  other  series,  to  con- 
densed  faces,  to  italic  capitals,  and  black- 
letter.     A  title  composed  of  incongruous 
M     faces  is  always  unp]  easing.     The  author 
is  usually  quick  to  notice  discord,  but  he 
Mhas  not  the  technical  knowledge  needed 
to   enable  him  to  detect  its  true  cause. 
He  imputes  the  discord,  not  always  right- 

M  fully,  to  the  bad  taste  of  the  compositor, 
when  oftener  it  should  be  imputed  to  the 
scant  supply  of  sizes  and  the  incon- 
m    /•     £ru^y  °f  ^ aces.    Some  publishers  have 
m  /  I      keen  so  annoyed  by  the  wide  gaps  be- 
W   ;        tween  existing  sizes  of  two-line  let- 
ter sy  and  the  incongruity  of  any 
M  substituted  face,  that  they  have 
ordered  special  lines,  and  some- 
times the  entire  title,  to  be  en- 
graved, too  frequently,  it  must  be 
admitted,  without  improvement. 
A  modern-cut. 


244        Irregular  Width  of  Two-lines 

Others  have  ordered  a  title  for  a  text  in  modern- 
cut  to  be  set  either  in  Elzevir  or  Caslon  old-style, 
which  appear  to  be  the  only  available  styles  that 
have  a  passably  complete  grading  of  sizes.  The 
impropriety  of  a  title  in  old-style  before  a  text  in 
modern-cut  is  foreseen  and  deplored,  but  it  seems 
a  fault  not  so  offensive  as  the  mixing  of  unrelated 
two-lines  on  the  same  page.1 

For  book  titles,  and  also  for  the  initial  letters  of 
chapters,  two-line  capital  letters  are  needed,  which 
Two-line  types  should  be  graded  in  height  and  in 
irregular  and  width  so  as  to  show  a  slight  but  reg- 
ular increase  in  advancing  sizes,  and 
this  increase  should  be  graded  as  nicely  in  width 
as  in  height.  The  preceding  illustrations  show 
the  range  of  any  ordinary  series.  Their  grading 
as  to  height  —  two  points  between  smaller  and 
four  or  more  points  between  larger  sizes  —  seems 
close  enough;  but  their  grading  as  to  width  is 
far  more  irregular,  as  will  be  seen  by  compar- 
ing the  measurements  (in  points)  of  the  different 
sizes  in  that  direction.  For  many  displayed  lines 

1  The    unconventional    book  led  to  the  adoption  of  the  ruder 

titles  of  Pickering  and  Hough-  old  practice.  Many  recent  books 

ton  are  sometimes  a  surprise  to  from    European    presses    have 

printers,  who  have  frequently  the  larger  lines   of  display  in 

hazarded  the  assertion  that  these  their  titles    set   in   light-faced 

departures  from  the  established  antique,  Celtic,  or  runic.    These 

usage  are  servile  imitations  of  faces  are  not  preferred  by  any 

sixteenth-century  fashions.  Im-  publisher  ;    they  are    accepted 

itation  was  not  the  motive :  it  only  because  roman  capitals  of 

was  the  inability  to  find  types  a  proper  size  and  firmness  of 

suitable  in  face  and  body  that  hair-line  could  not  be  procured. 


Insufficient  Provision  of  Two-lines     245 

in  titles  the  smaller  of  two  proximate  sizes  is  too 
little  and  the  larger  is  too  big.    To  space  out  a 


M 

M 

MMM 

MMMMMMM 

Modernized  old-style  capitals  and  two-lines. 

short  line  entirety  changes  the  appearance  of  the 
character,  and  breaks  the  intended  harmony  of 
composition  5  to  select  the  size  that  is  needed  from 
another  series  is  a  disagreeable  alternative,  for  the 
type  so  selected  must  be  of  an  incongruous  face. 
The  illustrations  here  given  in  five  distinct  series 
of  capitals  and  two-line  letters,  from  four  foun- 
dries, show  plainly  the  uneven  grading  of  the  sizes. 
The  two-line  letters  that  are  now  provided  are 
very  frequently  false  to  name.  They  line  only 
with  a  few  sizes  of  solid  type,  and  seldom  line 


MMMMMM 


MMMM 


A  series  of  two-lines  and  capitals  of  light-face. 

at  all  with  leaded  type.  A  strict  two-line  should 
line  not  only  with  the  top  of  the  upper  line  but 
with  the  bottom  of  the  lower  line.1  There  is  a 

1  See  page  59. 


246  New  Widths  Desirable 

real  need  for  two-lines  on  the  bodies  of  26-,  30-,  34-, 
38-,  42-,  and  46-point ;  and  the  faces  cut  for  these 
bodies  should  be  true  intermediates,  in  width  as 
well  as  in  height,  of  their  proximate  faces.  The 
new  sizes  are  required  to  complete  the  deficiencies 
now  existing  in  the  series  of  Elzevir,  Caslon,  and 
modernized  old-style  provided  by  American  type- 
founders. For  the  still  more  incomplete  series  of 
light-face,  Scotch-face,  and  bold-face,  many  more 
sizes  and  bodies  are  desirable. 

Nor  should  this  improvement  stop  with  added 
faces  and  bodies  of  two-line  letters  of  the  standard 
Tiiree  widths  width.  A  full  series  of  lean-faces  and 
of  roman  cap-  of  f at-f aces,  to  line  and  mate  with  the 
itais  needed  standard-f  aces,  should  be  provided  for 
each  body.  The  lean-faces  should  not  be  notice- 
ably condensed,  nor  the  fat-faces  offensively  ex- 
panded. The  variation  should  be  slight,  so  that 


HLHLHL 

Fat  Standard  Lean 


the  types  of  a  lean-  and  a  standard-face,  or  of 
a  fat-  and  a  standard-face,  may  be  used  together 
in  the  same  line  if  occasion  require.  Assuming 
that  the  standard  width  of  the  twenty-six  capital 


Needed  for  Book  Titles  247 

letters  is  twenty  ems  of  its  own  body,  the  full  ser- 
ies of  lean  letters  should  measure  about  eighteen 
ems,  and  the  full  series  of  fat  letters  should  mea- 
sure about  twenty-two  ems  of  the  same  body.  Each 
series  of  fat,  lean,  and  standard  form  should  be 
cut  of  the  same  height,  thickness  of  stem,  and 
length  of  serif.  The  peculiarity  'of  the  style,  and 
the  exact  lining  of  all  the  characters,  should  be 
maintained  in  each  series. 

With  types  made  after  this  system  the  charac- 
ters of  each  proximate  series  could  often  be  used 
interchangeably.  Set  in  types  of  stan-  Advantage  to 
dard  width,  a  line  that  is  too  long  for  compositors 
the  measure  could  be  cut  down  to  proper  length 
with  types  of  the  lean  form.  This  could  be  done 
without  any  loss  of  perspicuity,  and  without  pro- 
voking any  suspicion  as  to  the  possible  change  of 
face.  Provided  with  a  complete  series  of  two- 
line  letters  of  uniform  face,  and  of  three  distinct 
widths,  the  compositor  of  book  titles  would  find 
his  task  as  easy  as  it  is  now  difficult.  The  improved 
appearance  of  a  title-page  that  has  been  composed 
in  types  of  uniform  face,  that  has  not  been  dis- 
figured with  spacing,  and  that  gives  proper  promi- 
nence to  each  line,  needs  no  explanation.  The 
cost  of  a  complete  series  of  two-line  letters  made 
after  this  plan  would  be  great,  but  the  benefit  to 
be  had  therefrom  would  be  equally  great ;  for  the 
time  that  is  now  lost,  without  any  compensating 
benefit,  in  futile  attempts  to  compose  book  titles 


248  Large  Romans  Neglected 

with  insufficient  sizes  and   faces  of  type  would 
soon  pay  for  the  cutting  of  many  series. 

Romans  of  large  size  and  two-line  capitals  will 
be  bought  more  freely  when  they  are  made  much 
Fraiit  of  stronger.  Types  with  protracted  hair- 
modern-cut  lines  and  long,  weak  serifs,  like  those  of 
two-lines  ^e  fashion  now  prevailing,  are  no  more 
adapted  for  the  general  work  of  a  printing  house 
than  kid  gloves  are  for  manual  labor.  A  prudent 
printer,  who  foresees  the  risks  of  injury  that  types 
of  this  cut  have  to  meet,  regards  them  as  a  luxury, 
for  they  are  quite  as  frail  as  script,  and  can  be 
judiciously  used  only  for  printing  that  is  intended 
to  be  light,  delicate,  and  feminine.  No  one  dares 
use  them  for  posters  or  for  ordinary  job  printing. 


Scotch 


A  six-line  roman  of  light-face. 

They  find  but  a  limited  employment  in  book  titles 
and  newspaper  headings :  even  in  this  small  field 
of  service  they  are  often  rejected  as  unsuitable. 
The  six-line  roman  here  shown,  which  is  of  a  full 
series  of  both  roman  and  a  mated  italic  on  many 


Firmer  Hair-lines  Demanded        249 

bodies  from  agate  to  ten-line  pica,  has  a  remark- 
able beauty  of  form,  but  is  relatively  weak.  It 
will  be  found  entirely  unsuitable  if  used  in  a  book 
title  for  a  display  line  in  red  ink.  Bold  as  it  may 
seem,  there  is  not  surface  enough  on  the  larger 
sizes  to  show  a  good  color,  and  it  is  too  feeble 
to  resist  ordinary  wear.  If  it  be  compared  with 
the  Elzevir  or  the  Caslon  capitals  shown  on  pages 
241-2,  the  reader  cannot  fail  to  note  the  superior 
fitness  for  general  service  of  the  older  forms. 

If  an  approved  face  of  modern-cut  capital  were 
made  with  the  thick  hair-line  and  strong  serif  of 
these  sturdy  old-styles,  and  if  this  new  Why  the  old- 
style  were  cut  as  has  been  recommended  style  is  liked 
for  every  body  in  the  three  distinct  series  of  a  lean, 
a  standard,  and  a  fat  shape,  the  preference  now 
given  to  the  old-style  character  would  be  largely 
diminished.  The  new  capitals  would  have  all  the 
strength  and  readability  of  the ,  old- style,  with  a 
precision  of  form  and  a  mechanical  grace  of  finish 
not  to  be  found  in  any  of  the  earlier  models. 

The  specimens  of  firmer  faces  shown  on  previ- 
ous pages  are  indications  that  the  admiration  for 
hair-lines  and  for  emasculated  printing  is  nearing 
its  end.  To  these  specimens  may  be  added  another 
style  recently  introduced  by  the  American  Type 
Founders  Company,  which  is  illustrated  on  the 
following  page.  The  stem  and  hair-line  are  prac- 
tically of  the  same  thickness,  yet  the  face  is  light 
and  inviting.  It  promises  to  be  a  readable  letter. 
32 


250  Modern  Two-line  Types 


DR.  JAVAL'S  NOTIONS  ABOUT  SERIFS. 
These  attachments  to  the  stems  were  not  put  on 
purely  as  ornament,  nor  kept  there  only  in  obedi- 
ence to  tradition.  They  can  be  seen  in  English 
manuscripts  of  the  seventh  century ;  they  were 
used  by  Italian  calligraphers ;  they  were  adopted 
by  the  earliest  printers  of  ROME  and  of  PARIS  ; 
they  continue  to  be  used  to  this  day  for  the  pur- 
pose of  increasing  the  readability  of  the  characters. 


10-point  Gushing  or  Monotone. 

Some  early  forms  of  roman  letter  have  never 
been  reproduced.  One  style,  probably  drawn  by 
Robert  Gran j on,  used  by  the  printers  of  Lyons, 
and  occasionally  by  Froben  of  Basle,  is  really  as 
light  as  that  of  the  thinnest  of  modern  light- 
faces,  yet  it  has  no  sharp  hair-line,  not  even  in 
the  smallest  capitals. 


COPLEY 


Double  great-primer  Copley. 

The  Boston  Type  Foundry  makes  a  few  large 
sizes  of  roman  capitals  of  quaint  form,  in  imita- 
tion of  a  peculiar  style  devised  by  the  old  sign- 
painters  of  that  city.  This  Copley  face  is  pro- 
vided with  small  capitals,  and  is  not  an  unpl easing 


Modern  Two-line  Types  251 

variation  of  the  standard  form.  Although  useful 
for  display  lines  in  job-work,  modern  taste  con- 
demns it  as  too  bold  for  book  titles  or  for  initials. 


ABCDEFGHIJKL 

A  bold-face  in  fashion  from  1810  to  1825. 

ABCDEFGHIJKLMN 

A  medium-face  with  the  flat  serifs  in  fashion  from  1820  to  1840. 

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNO 

A  light-face  with  flat  serifs,  of  a  later  period. 

ABCDEFGHIJKLMNO 

A  medium-face  of  the  present  style. 

ABCDEFGHIJKLMN 

"Half  title"  of  modern  cut  with  bracketed  serifs. 

ABCDEFGHIJKL 


A  light-face  of  modern  cut. 


Six  series  of  two-line  letters  on  16 -point  body. 

The  illustrations  of  two-line  faces  on  this  page 
are  fair  specimens  of  styles  that  have  successively 
prevailed  in  this  century.  Since  the  fat-faces  went 
out  of  fashion  the  tendency  has  been  toward  light- 
ness or  delicacy  as  to  face,  and  frequently  to  nar- 


252  Evils  of  the  Hair-line 

rowness  as  to  shape.  For  some  styles  of  text- 
type  not  one  of  these  faces  is  really  suitable :  the 
bold-face  may  be  too  bold,  and  the  light-face  too 
light,  to  serve  either  as  an  initial  or  as  a  letter  for 
the  title.  There  are  not  sizes  enough  of  any  style, 
but  the  letters  of  different  styles  cannot  be  used 
together  even  in  different  lines  upon  the  same  page. 
The  conservatism  of  type-founders  is  fairly  illus- 
trated by  these  exhibits.  In  every  series,  whether 
universality  of  lean  or  standard  shape,  of  light-  or 
of  hair-line  bold-f  ace,  the  sharp  hair-line  is  always 
maintained.  The  stem  may  be  twice  as  thick  or 


AMERICAN 

INITIAL 


Bold-faced  two-line  types  with  weak  serifs. 

twice  as  thin  as  those  of  old  models,  but  the  hair- 
line is  always  the  same.  From  the  reader's  and 
printer's  point  of  view  this  mannerism  is  unfortu- 
nate. Putting  aside  the  wear  that  these  types  must 
receive  on  press,  a  prudent  printer  has  to  ask  the 
question,  "How  many  times  can  letters  like  these 


Hair-lines  Impair  Readability        253 

be  handled  by  the  compositor  without  injury?" 
Even  upon  bodies  no  smaller  than  great-primer, 
these  sharp-lined  romans  are  too  weak  to  be  dis- 
tributed pell-mell  in  the  case.  The  type  that  falls 
but  six  inches  and  strikes  a  serif  must  receive  a 
damaging  bruise. 

The  smaller  sizes  of  light-faced  romans  are  not 
so  liable  to  injury  from  handling,  but  they  are  ob- 
jectionable because  they  are  indistinct.  Limitations 
Sharp  lines  and  dazzling  serifs  make  all  of  hair-line 
the  light-faces  hard  to  read.  They  have  a  rightful 
place  in  ornamental  typography,  for  they  are  ex- 
ceedingly beautiful  if  judged  by  a  feminine  stan- 
dard of  beauty,  but  they  are  entirely  out  of  place 
in  serious  books,  or  in  any  text  of  importance,  in 
which  an  indistinct  letter  or  word  demands  of  the 
reader  a  straining  of  the  eyes. 

The  designers  of  the  extreme  light-faces  seem  to 
have  forgotten  that  the  old  methods  of  presswork 
have  been  abandoned.     Books  as  made  ^aT^  lines 
now  are  rarely  printed  on  damp  paper,  not  adapted 
or  against  an  elastic  impression  surface  fl 
which  necessarily  thickens  the  sharp  lines:    Mod- 
ern printing  needs  hair-lines  that  are  thicker  and 
not  thinner.1  Unfortunately  the  needs  of  the  reader 
are  lightly  regarded  by  the  men  who  make  types. 

l  Blades,  in  a  review  of  the  types  were  he  to  see  them  care- 
types  of  the  Enschede*  Foundry,  fully  and  delicately  printed  by 
says  that  its  renowned  punch-  modern  methods  of  presswork 
cutter  Fleischmann  probably  on  sized  and  calendered  paper, 
would  not  recognize  his  own  "Book- worm"  of  April,  1870. 


254     Types  should  be  made  for  Headers 

.  They  think  more  of  the  display  of  their  own  skill. 
The  punch-cutter's  straining  after  a  hair-line  that 
stops  just  before  invisibility  is  ably  seconded  by 
the  pressman  who  scantily  inks  these  light-faces 
with  a  hard  ink-roller,  and  then  with  the  feeblest 
possible  impression  impresses  them  against  an  in- 
elastic surface  on  dry  and  hard  calendered  paper. 
This  weak  and  misty  style  of  printing  is  vastly 
admired  by  many  printers,  and  perhaps  by  a  few 
publishers,  but  it  is  as  heartily  disliked  by  all  who 
believe  that  types  should  be  made  for  the  needs 
of  the  reader  more  than  for  an  exhibition  of  the 
skill  of  the  printer  or  type-founder. 

The  rights  of  readers  deserve  more  considera- 
tion. The  rules  that  editors  and  men  of  business 
Distinctness  is  appty  to  writing  should  be  applied  to 
always  of  first  book-types.  The  hand-writing  that 
cannot  easily  be  read,  even  if  its  in- 
dividual letters  have  been  most  daintily  and  scien- 
tifically formed  by  a  master  of  penmanship,  with 
the  sharpest  of  hair-lines  and  the  greatest  profu- 
sion of  flourishes,  is  quite  as  intolerable  as  that 
which  is  slovenly  and  illegible.  No  printer  de- 
sires it  for  his  copy ;  no  merchant  tolerates  it  in 
his  account  books ;  no  one  wants  it  in  his  corre- 
spondence. If  one  seeks  a  cause  for  the  mercan- 
tile and  editorial  dislike  of  a  so-called  "pretty" 
handwriting,  he  is  sure  to  find  it  partially  in 
its  needless  flourishes  and  largely  in  its  delicate 
and  unseen  "razor-edged"  lines. 


VII 


Condensed  Roman  Types 

i?HE  inflexibility  of  the  types  made 
for  titles  of  books  has  always  been 
an  annoyance  to  compositors.  There 
are  occasions  when  it  seems  neces- 
sary to  put  a  certain  number  of  let- 
ters or  words  in  one  line.  If  there  are  too  many 
letters  in  this  display  line  the  types  will  be  small 
and  weak ;  if  there  are  too  few  letters  the  Need  for  a 
types  will  be  too  big  and  too  bold.  The  condensed 
typographical  practice  which  prevailed 
before  the  year  1840  permitted  types  marked  for  a 
prominent  line  of  display  to  be  widely  spaced  be- 
tween letters  when  there  were  not  letters  enough 
in  the  words  to  fill  the  measure.  The  en  and  the 
em  quadrat  were  frequently  used  as  spaces.  It 
was  not  permitted  to  set  the  words  for  large  dis- 
play in  two  connected  lines  of  the  same  size  and 
style  of  type,  either  with  or  without  a  hyphen. 


256         Beginnings  of  Pinched  Types 

The  words  for  large  display  must  always  be  in  one 
line,  whether  they  were  few  or  many.  In  the  early 
days  of  printing  the  division  of  a  prominent  line 
was  a  common  practice,  but  for  a  full  century  at 
least  the  division  of  displayed  words  in  titles  has 
been  regarded  as  a  mangling  of  language  and  as 
unworkmanlike  in  the  highest  degree. 

To  avoid  what  was  regarded  as  the  uncouth 
division  of  the  display  lines  of  titles,  or  the  al- 
condensed  ternative  of  a  selection  of  capitals  too 
letters  once  small  for  proper  display,  printers  had 
in  fasMon  £o  resort  to  condensed  capitals,  which 
seem  to  have  first  been  shown  in  France  about 
the  year  1820.  As  two-line  letters  for  titles,  or 
as  initials,  or  as  headings  of  chapters,  they  had  a 
remarkable  success.  Their  slender,  symmetrical 
shapes  were  an  agreeable  contrast  to  the  stumpy 


•^ 

Ml 

lMMllMM» 

M 

Condensed  two-line  letters. 

forms  of  the  rudely  cut  two -line  fat -faces  then 
in  fashion.  Every  publisher  wanted  condensed 
letters  in  his  titles,  and  they  were  furnished  on 
many  bodies  from  one-line  nonpareil  to  ten-line 
pica.  Some  were  but  moderately  condensed,  in 


Ineffectiveness  of  Pinched  Types      257 

which  shape  they  were  not  more  objectionable 
than  the  lean-faced  capitals  of  a  thin  font;  but 
the  shape  most  popular  was  that  of  a  character 
almost  one  half  the  width  of  the  standard  two- 
line  letter.  The  legibility  and  the  effectiveness  of 
each  letter  were  diminished  with  every  new  degree 
of  narrowness,  but  this  did  not  prevent  the  mak- 
ing, and  use,  of  still  thinner  characters,  which  were 
labeled  as  extra  condensed  and  double  extra  con- 
densed. In  due  time  came  lower-case  letters  for 
most  of  the  new  capitals,  all  of  which  were  readily 
accepted  and  used  by  job  printers.  In  English  and 
American  book  houses  the  condensed  shape  never 
found  favor ;  for  a  noticeably  condensed  lower- 
case has  never  yet  been  accepted  as  a  proper  text 
letter  for  the  standard  book. 

The  use  of  the  condensed  capitals  for  book  titles 
was  carried  to  great  excess,  and  a  reaction  followed. 
After  a  sufficient  experience  it  was  Ob-ectedto 
proved  that  the  appearance  of  titles  was  as  frail  and 
really  injured  by  a  decidedly  condensed  indistinct 
letter.  The  thin  type  enabled  the  printer  to  get 
displayed  words  of  many  letters  in  one  line,  but  the 
letters  were  necessarily  weak,  and  in  violent  con- 
trast to  the  letters  of  other  lines  which  had  to  be 
set  in  capitals  of  a  standard  form.  Pinched  letters 
and  indistinct  lines  always  seem  out  of  place  in 
the  ample  white  space  of  the  ordinary  book  title. 
The  only  form  of  condensed  two-line  letter  now 
approved  by  critical  printers  is  one  which  barely 

33 


258         Delicacy  of  the  Larger  Sizes 

deserves  the  title  of  condensed,  for  it  is  but  lit- 
tle thinner  than  the  capitals  of  the  ordinary  lean 
letter  still  used  for  "book-texts.  Many  publish- 
ers have  gone  back  to  the  old  form,  and  refuse  to 


MMMMMMM 


A  recent  form  of  condensed  two-line  letters. 

use  any  variety  of  condensed  two-line  letter  for 
book  titles.  One  reason  for  this  objection  is  the 
mechanical  feebleness  of  all  the  condensed  letters. 
Many  of  them  are  copied  from  French  models  of 
great  delicacy,  in  which  the  hair-line  of  the  six- 
line  pica  is  almost  as  sharp  as  that  of  the  two-line 
diamond.  The  specimen  that  follows  is  a  fair 
example  of  a  French  fashion  of  two-line  letter. 
Note  the  slenderness  of  the  hair-line,  the  exten- 


CHUEN 


A  French  form  of  two-line  letter. 


Limits  to  Condensation  259 

sion  and  flatness  of  the  serif.  To  every  reader  of 
imperfect  eyesight  these  hair-lines  are  practically 
invisible  j  a  letter  is  guessed  at  by  its  stems. 

There  are  limits  to  the  narrowing  of  letters 
that  cannot  be  safely  exceeded.  For  the  bodies 
of  pica,  small-pica,  long-primer,  and  Smalltypes 
bourgeois,  the  punch-cutter  can  make  should  not 
a  lower-case  alphabet  readable  within  be  Pincned 
the  compass  of  twelve  ems  of  its  own  body,  but 
he  cannot  make  a  satisfactory  text-letter  under 
this  rule  for  any  smaller  body.  Even  when  he 
proposes  to  make  a  symmetrical  series  of  sizes, 
he  cannot  reduce  size  by  strict  geometrical  rule. 
The  alphabet  of  bourgeois  may  be  kept  within 
twelve  ems,  but  that  of  agate  should  have  fifteen 
ems,  and  that  of  diamond  seventeen  ems.1  The 
insistence  of  newspaper  publishers,  who  desired 
to  crowd  much  reading  in  a  very  small  space, 
has  frequently  induced  type-founders  to  cut  types 
below  the  standard,  but  never  satisfactorily.  Of 
the  larger  sizes  of  brevier  and  bourgeois  the  con- 
densed types  were  not  as  clear  and  readable ;  of 
the  smaller  sizes  of  nonpareil  and  agate  the 
figures,  fractions,  and  all  the  characters  contain- 
ing close  lines,  soon  became  indistinct  and  of 
uncertain  meaning  after  a  moderate  amount  of 
wear.  The  slight  advantages  obtained  in  one 
direction  were  lost  in  another.  A  font  of  lean  or 

1  See  remarks  and  illustrations  standards  of  type  on  pages  114- 
of  the  widths  and  the  variable  116  of  this  volume. 


260        Condensed  Text-types  Avoided 

moderately  condensed  type  wore  out  much  sooner 
than  a  font  of  standard-face.  When  it  was  de- 
monstrated that  lean  types  of  small  body  were 
deficient  in  durability  and  readability  they  went 
out  of  fashion.  A  strong  reaction  to  the  other 
extreme  soon  followed.  The  smaller  types  of 
many  of  our  newspapers  are  now  as  much  too 
faroad  as  they  were  too  narrow. 

In  a  recent  essay,  a  French  optician1  lays  down 
the  proposition  that  the  diminution  of  readability^ 
Dr.  javai's  *n  ^e  smaller  sizes  of  roman  lower- 
comments  on  case  is  chiefly  due  to  their  diminution 

readability         in  height      He  sayg  that  a  gmall  type 

should  not  be  condensed, for  it  is  too  short;  but  a 
large  type  may  be  moderately  condensed  without 
loss  of  readability,  as  it  is  high.  As  the  print  is 
rarely  placed  in  a  strictly  vertical  line  for  the  pur- 
pose of  reading,  but  is  usually  held  in  the  hand 
or  put  on  the  desk  at  an  angle  of  about  forty 
degrees,  it  follows  that  the  perception  and  identi- 
fication of  small  letters  are  somewhat  hindered 
by  their  shortness.  They  will  not  bear  the  fore- 
shortening made  by  the  inclination  of  the  print. 
The  condensed  faces  shown  on  pages  205  and 
215  of  this  work  are  about  the  thinnest  that  have 
been  used  for  books  in  France,  but  they  have  not 
been  approved  by  English  or  American  publishers. 
Yet  there  are  evidences  that  the  prejudice  against 

1  M.  Javal,  "La  typographic,  lustrated  with  types  in  "Revue 
et  1'hygiene  de  la  vue/'  fully  il-  Scientifique,"No.  26,  June,  1881. 


Condensed  Types  Needed  for  Books   261 

condensed  forms  of  the  larger  sizes  is  relaxing. 
There  is  need  for  a  thin  text-letter  in  poetry  and 
in  the  page  of  two  columns.  To  use  a  where  tllill 
round-  or  a  broad-face  in  poetry  where  types  are  of 
the  comparative  narrowness  of  the  ( 
measure  compels  a  turn-over  of  the  last  syllable 
or  word,  or  in  a  double-columned  page  where 
the  narrowness  of  the  measure  compels  the  com- 
positor to  wide-space  and  thin-space  in  adjacent 
lines,  is  always  a  serious  disfigurement,  and  an 
offense  to  the  reader.  To  select  a  smaller  size  of 
type  and  to  lead  or  double-lead  the  composition 
is  an  equally  objectionable  alternative,  for  this 
procedure  diminishes  the  readability  of  the  type, 
increases  the  cost  of  composition,  and  produces 
the  effect  of  padding  by  its  needless  extension  of 
the  matter.  To  make  a  larger  page  on  a  larger 
leaf  increases  expense  in  another  direction  with- 
out benefit  to  author,  publisher,  or  reader.  The 
only  proper  treatment  of  composition  in  a  narrow 
or  contracted  space  is  to  select  a  roman  type  that 
has  been  made  for  and  is  adapted  to  the  narrow 
column  or  page.  For  all  bodies  below  10-point  a 
narrowing  that  makes  their  lower-case  alphabets 
thinner  than  that  of  the  prevailing  standards  is 
not  to  be  recommended.  Experience  has  proved 
its  inutility.  For  bodies  between  10-point  and  20- 
point,  condensed  styles  with  alphabets  of  about 
eleven  ems  could  be  used  to  good  advantage  in 
the  best  book-work.  Types  larger  than  12-point, 


262          Much  Used  by  Job  Printers 

that  are  now  rejected  by  publishers  as  too  coarse 
and  sprawling,  would  be  readily  accepted  if  they 
were  made  of  good  cut,  in  the  moderately  con- 
densed shape  of  the  style  on  page  215.  A  large 
size  of  this  form,  set  solid,  would  be  more  inviting 
to  the  eye  and  more  readable  than  a  smaller  size 
widened  by  leads.  Unfortunately,  a  full  series  of 
moderately  condensed  face  is  not  made  by  any 
American  founder  on  a  body  larger  than  14-point. 
The  face  shown  on  page  214  has  to  be  submitted 
as  the  nearest  approximation. 


INTRODUCTION  TO  LOGOGRAPHY,or 
the  Art  of  Arranging  and  Composing  for 
Printing  with  Words  Intire,  their  Radices 
and  Terminations,  instead  of  Single  Let- 
ters, Henry  Johnson,  London,  1783, 


An  early  form  of  condensed  pica,  leaded. 
George  Bruce's  Son  &  Co. 

Job  printers  have  always  appreciated  the  ser- 
viceability of  condensed  types.  For  the  display 
lines  of  cards,  handbills,  and  advertisements  con- 
densed shapes  of  every  style  are  as  freely  used 
now  as  they  were  fifty  years  ago,  and  there  is  no 
reason  to  believe  that  they  will  ever  go  out  of 
fashion.  The  condensed  face  shown  on  this  page, 


Condensed  Light-face  263 

which  was  introduced  when  fat-faced  types  were 
in  the  height  of  fashion,  had  all  the  defects  of  the 
text- types  of  that  period  —  the  thick  stem  and  the 
shallow  counter,  the  flat  serif  and  the  over-sharp 
hair-line. 

This  style  was  not  made  in  any  size  smaller  than 
brevier.  It  wore  out  with  little  use.  Its  defects 
were  seen  and  avoided  in  the  cutting  of  a  more 
popular  face  of  condensed  which  soon  followed. 


DR.  WILLIAM  CHURCH  OF  AMERICA 
received  a  British  Patent,  March,  1828, 
for  "  Improved  Apparatus  for  Print- 
ing," which  was  intended  to  cast  and 
compose  types  at  an  nnnsnal  speed, 


A  later  form  of  condensed  pica,  leaded. 
George  Bruce's  Son  &  Co. 

In  this  face  the  stems  are  relatively  lighter,  and 
the  counters  are  deeper,  but  the  serif  and  hair-line 
are  as  delicate  as  those  of  the  earlier  face.  Some 
fonts  of  condensed  have  capitals  that  are  not 
proper  mates  for  the  lower-case  alphabet  —  each 
series  obviously  the  work  of  a  different  punch- 
cutter.  This  incongruity  properly  excludes  them 
from  book- work,  but  even  if  they  were  unexcep- 
tionably  cut,  all  the  early  faces  on  pica  and  the 


264  Extra  Condensed  Styles 

smaller  bodies  are  too  condensed  for  a  readable 
text.  The  merit  of  roman  condensed  is  best  shown 
by  a  specimen  of  the  style  on  a  larger  body. 


A.  DELCAMBRE 

Composing  Machine 

March  13, 1840 


A  modern  cut  of  condensed  on  double  english  body. 
George  Bruce's  Son  &  Co. 

This  beautiful  letter,  which  is  provided  by  some 
founders  in  a  full  series  from  pica  to  six-line  pica, 
would  be  more  largely  used  if  it  had  been  made 
with  stronger  lines. 

Although  the  faces  previously  shown  are  too 
condensed  for  any  text  of  good  book-work,  they 
are  not  condensed  enough  to  meet  all  the  require- 
ments of  job  printers.  For  their  use  a  series  of 
extra  condensed,  ranging  from  brevier  to  four-line 
pica,  has  been  provided. 

In  the  headings  or  columns  of  table-work,  or  in 
any  other  place  where  a  large  type  seems  to  be  re- 
quired in  contracted  space,  this  style  is  of  value, 
but  it  is  seriously  abused  when  it  is  inconsider- 


Extra  Condensed  Styles 


265 


ately  selected  because  it  enables  the  compositor  to 
crowd  in  one  line  the  words  or  letters  that  should 
have  been  put  in  two  lines  with  better  effect.  As 
the  lower-case  alphabet  of  this  illustration  comes 


WILLIAM  HASLETT  MITCHEL,  of  Brooklyn,  K.  Y,,  received 
patents  in  1853  from  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  for 
the  first  practical  and  efficient  type-composing  machine,  It 
was  kept  in  use  for  many  years  in  the  office  of  John  F, 
Trow,  of  New  York,  hut  failed  for  want  of  a  proper  distributor, 


Pica  extra  condensed. 
George  Brace's  Son  &  Co. 

within  eight  ems  of  its  own  body,  it  approaches 
obscureness  too  closely.  It  can  be  used  properly 
in  very  narrow  measures,  or  in  places  where  no 
other  face  of  type  will  serve ;  yet  it  is  not  uncom- 
mon to  see  this  face  in  the  titles  of  French  books 
in  which  there  is  abundance  of  white  space. 


This  style  of  extra  condensed,  but  in  the  series 
of  capitals  only,  is  occasionally  to  be  found  upon 

34 


266  Old-style  Condensed 

the  covers,  and  sometimes  upon  the  inner  titles, 
of  recent  books  by  Parisian  printers.  Made  in 
full  series  from  pica  to  six-line  pica,  this  remark- 
ably pinched  style  had  a  brief  popularity  in  this 
country,  but  it  is  now  entirely  out  of  use,  and  de- 
servedly so,  for  it  proved  a  frail  and  most  unsatis- 
factory type.  The  job  printer  of  the  present  time 
prefers  for  condensed  letters  the  newer  styles  of 
the  antique  or  gothic  class,  which  are  more  distinct 
and  more  durable. 

The  old-style  character  has  been  pressed,  but 
not  without  difficulty,  into  service  as  a  condensed 
type.  The  face  on  this  page,  without  lower-case, 
was  obviously  made  for  a  two-line  letter.  It  con- 
forms as  closely  as  its  condensed  shape  will  allow 
to  the  general  outline  of  the  old-style  form,  but 
the  spirit  and  the  effect  of  the  true  old-style  model 
are  entirely  wanting.  The  masculine  strength  and 
easy  legibility  of  the  model  have  been  destroyed ; 
we  have  instead  the  feminine  curves  and  the  deli- 


TIMOTHY  ALDEN'S 
MACHINE  OF  1846 


Two-line  small-pica  condensed  old-style. 
George  Bruce's  Son  &  Co. 


Old-style  Condensed  267 

cacy  of  line  affected  by  a  teacher  of  penmanship 
or  an  engraver  of  visiting  cards. 

A  style  not  so  condensed,  but  with  stems  a  trifle 
thicker  and  with  hair-lines  equally  sharp,  is  shown 
by  the  MaeKellar,  Smiths  &  Jordan  Co.  This  face, 
or  the  one  illustrated  on  the  preceding  page,  is 
generally  preferred  for  the  initial  letters  and  the 
title-page  letters  of  texts  that  have  been  composed 
in  modernized  old-style. 


NEW  OLD-STYLE 
M.S.&J.CO.,i88o. 


Two-line  small-pica  condensed  old-style. 

Another  variety  of  condensed  modernized  old- 
style,  provided  with  lower-case  characters,  is  made 
by  James  Conner's  Sons.  In  this  variety  the  hair- 
lines are  a  trifle  firmer,  but  the  spirit  of  the  old- 
style  is  traced  with  difficulty  in  its  smaller  sizes. 


Odd  Old-style 


Four-line  pica  old-style  condensed. 


268  Extra  Condensed  Old-style 

Old-style  condensed  letter  is  made  in  a  greater 
variety,  and  is  more  thoroughly  graded,  than  the 
established  old-style  of  standard  form.  From  the 
bodies  commonly  used  a  printer  can  select  two  or 
three  distinct  widths,  which  mate  better  than  the 
condensed  of  modern-face. 

An  extra  condensed  old-style  is  also  provided, 
in  which  a  few  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  old  form 
are  somewhat  exaggerated  while  others  are  en- 
tirely neglected.  It  is  largely  used  as  a  display 
letter  in  advertisements. 


Much  Pinched  Old-style 


40-point  old-style  extra  condensed. 

In  all  these  attempts  to  reproduce  the  strength 
and  simplicity  of  the.  old  Caslon  character,  it  does 
not  appear  that  any  founder  has  copied  the  firm 
hair-line  which  is  one  of  its  most  characteristic 
features. 


VIII 


Italic  Types 

ITALIC  is  never  selected  now  as  the 
type  for  the  text  of  a  book,  but  it 
may  be  used  with  good  effect  for  its 
preface.  Good  taste  forbids  its  too 
frequent  employment  in  its  much- 
abused  office  of  distinguishing  emphatic  Limitations 
words.  An  excess  of  italic  spots  and  in  the  use  of 
disfigures  the  page,  confuses  the  eye, 
and  really  destroys  the  emphasis  it  was  intended 
to  produce.  Yet  italic  cannot  be  entirely  put 
aside.  There  is  no  other  style  so  well  adapted  for 
sub-headings,  for  names  of  actors  or  persons  in 
plays,  for  titles  of  books,  and  for  special  words  not 
emphatic  that  should  be  discriminated  at  a  glance. 
Although  useful,  italic  is  not  liked  by  printers 
or  founders,  for  it  is  troublesome  to  cut  and  cast, 
and  it  has  many  kerned  letters  that  often  break 
unexpectedly.  There  are  mechanical  difficulties 


270  Original  Old-style  Italic 

not  easily  overcome  in  all  attempts  to  put  an 
inclined  face  on  a  square  body.  The  inclination 
Mechanical  must  seem  uniform  in  all  letters,  but 
difficulties  many  letters  must  be  cut  with  varying 
angles  to  shorten  the  unsightly  gaps  between 
irregular  characters.  Kerns  are  unavoidable,  but 
much  ingenuity  is  often  required  to  prevent  one 
kern  from  overriding  another.  There  are  few 
forms  of  faultless  italic,  but  the  earlier  faces  are 
the  most  objectionable  for  uneven  workmanship.1 


ALD  US  MANUTIUS 
exhibited  his  first  form  of 
Italic  type  in  his  octavo  edi- 
tion of  Virgil,  Venice ;  1501. 


Original  old-style  italic  on  22-point  body,  solid. 
MacKellar,  Smiths  &  Jordan  Co. 

The  italic  furnished  with  the  "  original "  old- 
style  has  some  capitals  which  are  sprawling  and 
uncouth.  They  seem  badly  mated  with  each  other, 

i  Aldus,  the  inventor  of  italic,  using  upright  capitals  of  small 

evaded  the  mechanical  difflcul-  size  instead  of  inclined  capitals 

ties  by  giving  to  the  characters  of  full  height.    No  modern  re- 

the  slightest  possible  inclina-  viver  of  old  letters  has  ever  at- 

tion,  by  making  logotypes  of  all  tempted  a  faithful  reproduction 

the  interfering  letters,  and  by  of  the  Aldine  italic. 


Dutch  Italic    Baskerville  Italic       271 

and  with  its  thick-stemmed  and  condensed  lower- 
case. In  the  small  sizes  of  this  style  the  characters 
of  the  lower-case  are  of  lighter  face,  sometimes  so 
light  that  they  are  not  proper  mates  for  the  roman. 
The  larger  sizes  are  frequently  selected,  more  for 
their  quaintness  than  for  their  beauty,  as  a  strik- 
ing display  letter  for  advertisements.1 

There  are  old-style  italics  in  use  that  seem  to 
have  been  made  up  from  a  haphazard  collection 
of  discarded  punches  or  matrices,  gath-  RUde  forms 
ered  from  old  Dutch  and  early  English  of  old  italic 
type-founders  of  inferior  reputation.  When  the 
different  sizes  so  collected  are  shown  on  one  page, 
there  is  a  painful  discord  from  the  inequality  and 
irregular  angularity  of  the  characters.  These  un- 
couth types,  which  were  never  used  by  good  print- 
ers, are  often,  but  erroneously,  regarded  by  readers 
as  of  greater  age  and  relatively  higher  merit.2 

The  italic  designed  by  Baskerville  has  capital 
letters  of  better  form,  but  they  have  never  been 
faithfully  reproduced  by  any  type-founder  of  this 
century.  The  Baskerville  italic  is  more  condensed 
and  more  script-like  than  that  of  Caslon. 

1  Field  &  Tuer,  of  the  Lead-  2  One  of  the  rudest  and  most 

enhall  Press,  London,  have  for  uncouth  forms  of  old-style  italic 

their  exclusive  use  an  excellent  is  shown  by  Moxon  in  his  "  Me- 

f  orm  of  old-style  italic  of  bold  chanick  Exercises  "  of  1683,  and 

face,  with  the  swash  letters  and  with  larger  drawings  and  more 

other  features   of    quaintness,  of  detail  in  his  earlier  book  of 

which  they  use  with  good  effect  1676, — the  "  Regulse  Trium  Or- 

for  initials  and  for  the  running  dinum  Literarum  Typographi- 

titles  of  books  printed  in  the  carum,  or  the  Rules  of  the  Three 

fashion  of  the  last  century.  Orders  of  Print  Letters." 


272          Modernized  Old-style  Italic 


To  the  Worjhipful 
SIR  CHRISTOPHER  WREN,  Knight, 

Surveyor  of  His  Majejtys  Buildings. 
Sir, 

To  you  as  to  a  Lover  of  Rule  and  Proportion  I 
humbly  Dedicate  these  my  Observations  upon  Let- 
ters :  If  they  prove  Acceptable  to  you  I  have  my 
whole  Wifh,  andjhall  be  careless  of  the  Sleightings 
or  Censures  of  the  Ignorant  Contemners  of  Order 
and  Symmetry. 

Sir,  I  am 

Your  mojl  Humble  Servant, 
[  London,  1676.}  JOSEPH  MOXON. 


Modernized  old-style  italic  on  long-primer  body,  leaded. 
George  Bruce's  Son  &  Co. 

The  modernized  old-style  italic  follows  the  gen- 
eral form  approved  by  Caslon,  but  it  is  a  trifle 
broader  in  the  lower-case  sorts,  lighter  as  to  stem, 
and  all  the  characters  have  a  script-like  slender- 
ness  of  extended  hair-line  not  to  be  found  in  the 
Caslon  original.  The  old  forms  of  T  and  b  have 
been  properly  rejected  for  T  and  h  ;  but  what  is 
the  reason  for  the  occasional  retention  of  the  J 
in  place  of  J?  The  long  /and  its  double  letters 
are  not  completely  reproduced.  The  smaller  sizes 
are  sometimes  provided  with  inclined  figures.  It 
is  largely  used  for  prefaces,  and  by  job  printers 
as  a  text-letter  for  circulars  in  place  of  script. 


Elzevir  Old-style  Italic  273 

This  Elzevir  italic  is  the  true  mate  of  the  Elze- 
vir roman  shown  on  page  200.  It  is  of  a  bolder 
face  and  of  closer  set,  and  has  thicker  Mannerisms 
stems  and  firmer  hair-lines  than  the  ofElzevir 
modernized  old-style  italic.  While  it  reproduces 
nearly  all  the  peculiar  mannerisms  of  the  origi- 
nal—the bold  and  dashing  swashes  of  the 


ABBE  DE  VILLIERS,  1699.  I  know  a  man 
who  denies  himself  the  things  that  are  most  ne- 
cessary, so  that  he  can  collect  in  a  library,  scant- 
ily provided  with  other  books,  as  many  little 
Elzevirs  as  he  can  find.  In  his  pangs  of  hunger 
he  consoles  himself  with  his  ability  to  say:  "I 
have  ten  copies  of  each,  and  all  of  them  have  the 
rubricated  letters,  and  all  are  of  good  editions." 


Elzevir  old-style  italic  on  body  10,  leaded. 
Gustave  Mayeur,  Paris. 

tals,  the  conjoined  ft,  and  the  logotypes  of  final 
5  —  as,  eSj  is,  us  —  these  mannerisms  have  been  so 
remodeled  that  they  cease  to  be  uncouth  or  offen- 
sive. In  most  forms  of  printing  they  really  add 
to  its  effectiveness.  The  Elzevir  is  largely  used  in 
book  offices  for  prefaces,  and  as  a  suitable  letter 
for  subheadings  and  running-titles. 

Unfortunately  this  style  of  italic  is  not  made 
on  any  of  the  larger  bodies.     There  is  a  real  need 
of  larger  sizes  from  20-point  to  72-point. 
35 


274 


French  Old-style  Italic 


The  French  form  of  old-style  italic  is  more  round 
and  open,  and  is  sometimes  of  wider  set  than  any 
used  by  American  or  English  printers  of  books. 
Its  most  pronounced  peculiarity  is  the  thickening 
of  the  stem  in  every  rounded  letter  obliquely,  or 
"on  its  back/7  as  type-founders  call  it.  See  the 
0,  a,  pj  d,  and  other  rounded  characters.  This 
mannerism,  and  the  old-fashioned  models  of  V 
and  W,  give  to  this  style  decided  plainness  and 
simplicity.  There  are  other  peculiarities  of  face, 
especially  noticeable  in  the  increased  width  of 
the  capitals,  which  stamp  this  French  italic  with 
a  distinct  character.  Its  great  fault  is  its  frailty : 
the  kerns  on  f  and  y  are  too  long  and  too  weak. 


A  FRENCH  DECREE  of  1649.  We 
command  that,  for  the  future,  printers  and 
publishers  shall  take  one  lad  only  as  appren- 
tice. He  must  be  of  good  life  and  manners, 
Catholic,  of  French  birth,  qualified  to  serve 
the  public,  well  read  in  Latin,  and  able  to 
read  Greek,  of  which  he  shall  have  a  certifi- 
cate from  the  rector  of  the  University,  un- 
der penalty  of  }oo  livres  and  the  cancelling 
of  the  license  of  the  offending  master  printer. 


French  old-style  italic  on  body  11,  leaded. 
Fonderie  Turlot,  Paris. 


Bold-faces  and  Light-faces  275 

This  bold-faced  italic  is  the  mate  of  the  roman 
on  page  80.  It  has  great  boldness  and  blackness, 
but  its  hair-lines  are  slender  and  too  readily  worn. 
It  is  freely  used  by  job  printers  as  a  display  letter 
for  circulars,  and  for  book  advertisements. 


DANIEL  TREADWELL, 

born  in  Ipswich,  Massachusetts, 
10£/£  October, 1791,invented  the 
first  power  platen  press  made 
in  the  United  States.  The  new 
press  had  merit,  but  ivas  soon 
superseded  by  the  more  efficient 
Adams  press.  He  died  in  Cam- 
bridge, Wth  October,  1872. 


Modern  bold-face  italic  on  Columbian  body,  solid. 
George  Bruce's  Son  &  Co. 

Italics  of  light-face  seldom  appear  in  our  speci- 
men books.  The  light-faced  romans  of  American 
manufacture  are  too  often  provided  with  italics  of 
a  thicker  stem  and  of  a  different  style,  with  which 
they  always  make  a  most  unpleasing  contrast. 

The  face  shown  on  the  following  page  is  of  the 
round  and  open  form  which  seems  to  be  preferred 
by  French  publishers. 


276  French  Light-face  Italic 


G.A.CRAPELET,  a  distinguished  printer 
and  publisher,  was  born  in  Paris  in  1789, 
and  died  at  Nice  in  1842.  His  editions 
are  highly  appreciated  by  connoisseurs  for 
their  accuracy  and  excellent  workman- 
ship. He  received  medals  of  silver  in  1827 
and  1834  for  his  many  services  to  French 
typography.  His  writings  on  the  history 
and  practice  of  printing  are  of  value. 


Modern  French  light-face  italic  on  body  10,  leaded. 
Grustave  Mayeur,  Paris. 

The  form  of  condensed  italic  at  the  foot  of  this 
page  is  of  an  older  fashion  that  still  survives.  It 
is  the  mate  of  the  French-face  shown  on  page  215. 


JULES  DIDOT,  a  son  of  Pierre,  was  born 
August  5,  1794,  and  died  May  18, 1811. 
He  was  an  expert  type-founder  and  an  ad- 
mirable printer,  but  not  a  successful  publisher . 
His  presswork  on  vellum  has  never  been  sur- 
passed. For  his  services  to  France  as  an  edu- 
cator in  the  art  of  fine  printing  he  was  deco- 
rated with  the  medal  of  the  Legion  of  Honor. 


Condensed  French-face  italic  on  body  12,  solid. 
Gustave  Mayeur,  Paris. 


French  Italics  277 

The  round  and  bold-faced  italic  shown  on  this 
page  is  in  the  so-called  Didot  style :  it  is  the  mate 
of  the  roman  shown  on  page  218. 


HYACINTHS  DIDOT,  a  younger 
brother  of  Ambroise  Firmin-Didot, 
was  born  in  ijg/f.  After  i85j  he 
became  Director  of  the  Didot  print- 
ing-office. He  was  a  Chevalier  of 
the  Leg-ion  of  Honor,  and  member 
of  the  Municipal  Council  of  the  Eure. 


Eighteenth-century  French-face  italic  on  body  12,  solid. 
Grustave  Mayeur,  Paris. 

The  inclination  of  italic  allows  the  punch-cutter 
a  much  greater  freedom  of  design  than  he  can  ex- 
ercise in  the  drawing  of  plain  roman  italics  of 
letter.  Of  this  privilege  the  designers  new  form8 
of  France  have  made  liberal  use.  Many  of  the 
French-faces  have  peculiarities  of  marked  merit, 
but  these  peculiarities  are  not  accepted  by  English 
or  American  publishers,  who  object  to  any  devia- 
tion from  their  own  standards.  French  publishers 
are  more  tolerant.  In  standard  books  and  maga- 
zines many  of  them  admit  such  forms  of  italic  as 
"  Venetian "  and  "  engraver's/7  which  are  here  ex- 
cluded from  good  book-work.  In  America  the 
only  form  of  fanciful  italic  tolerated  in  books  is 
the  engraver's  hair-line,  when  used  for  mottos. 


278          Hair-line    Inclined  Roman 


GjfiYLOIf,  author,  was  born  in 
Kennett  Square,  (Pennsylvania,  llth  January. 
1225.  He  began  as  a  printer  in  1&42-  ^fter 
a  service  of  tvjo  years  he  vjent  abroad,  traveling- 
always  on  foot,  supporting-  himself  by  contri- 
butions to  journals.  j/Zs  traveller,  lecturer,  poet, 
and  translator,  he  earned  a  high  reputation, 
jit  his  death.  19th  (December,  1873,  he  was  the 
ambassador  of  the  United  States  at  Berlin. 


Engraver's  hair-line  italic  on  long-primer  body,  solid. 
George  Bruce's  Son  &  Co. 

The  inclined  roman  shown  at  foot  of  this  page 
is  one  of  the  many  French  varieties  of  italic.  It 
has  found  ready  sale  with  job  printers,  but  it  is  an 
innovation  that  does  not  please  critical  publishers. 


WILLIAM  A.  BULLOCK,  inventor  of  the 
rotary  printing-machine  then  known  as 
the  Bullock  press,  was  born  at  Green  ville, 
Greene  County,  New  York,  in  1813.  He  was 
fully  taught  the  trade  of  machinist,  and 
qualified  himself  as  a  mechanician.  He 
made  many  presses  of  merit.  He  died  at 
Philadelphia,  14th  April, -1867,  from  an 
accident  which  befell  him  when  he  was  put- 
ting up  and  adjusting  one  of  his  machines 
in  the  office  of  the  "Philadelphia  Ledger." 


Inclined  roman  on  10-point  body,  solid. 
Benton,  Waldo  &  Co.,  Milwaukee. 


Law  Italic    Fanciful  Italics         279 

The  law  italic  here  shown  is  broader,  clearer, 
and  more  easily  read  than  any  other.  These  good 
qualities  have  been  secured  by  making  each  char- 
acter wider,  by  giving  greater  prominence  to  the 
round  letters,  and  by  shortening  the  lines  of  the 
descending  letters.  In  England  and  America  it  is 
used  only  as  a  job-letter;  in  France  it  is  some- 
times used  for  the  running-titles  and  the  sub- 
headings of  standard  books. 


PIERRE  FRANQOIS  DIDOT,  son 
of  Francois,  was  born  at  Paris,  9th 
July,  1 732,  and  there  he  died,  7th 
December,  1793.  He  was  a  skilful 
type-founder,  a  manufacturer  of 
fine  bookpaper  at  Essonne,  and  the 
publisher  of  many  books  remark- 
able for  their  typographical  merit. 


Law  italic  on  long-primer  body,  double  leaded. 
George  Brace's  Son  &  Co. 

The  line  which  separates  italic  from  script  is  not 
easily  drawn.  There  are  many  styles  of  type  half 
italic  and  half  script,  but  all  of  them  are  properly 
regarded  as  unsuitable  for  book-work.  This  re- 
mark can  also  be  applied  to  faces  like  the  "en- 
graver's," u  lithographic,"  "French,"  "Harvard/7  and 
other  styles  that  are  ornamented  with  flourishes. 


280     Italic  Figures  and  Small  Capitals 

The  elongated  italic  is  an  extremely  condensed 
form  of  thick-faced  italic.  It  is  practically  an  en- 
largement of  the  face  shown  at  foot  of  page  276. 
It  is  cast  only  of  large  size,  and  usually  on  a 
rhomboidal  body,  to  prevent  the  kerning  of  long 
characters. 

Italic  figures  are  comparatively  modern.  They 
are  made  for  many  of  the  standard  varieties  of 
old-style  letter,  but  rarely  for  italic  of  modern 
cut.  The  need  of  italic  figures  is  clearly  shown 
wherever  figures  have  to  be  used  in  lines  of  italic 
capitals.  The  upright  small  capitals  of  Aldus  by 
the  side  of  his  inclined  italic  are  not  more  incon- 
gruous than  the  irregular  but  upright  figures  of 
roman  when  they  are  embedded  in  an  italic  text. 

Small  capitals  of  italic  are  sometimes  furnished 
to  some  fonts  by  Scotch  type-founders,  but 
are  not  made  in  the  United  States. 


IX 


Fat-face  or  Title-types 

(EVENTY  years  ago  fat-face  types 
were  in  fashion.  It  was  believed 
that  the  legibility  of  a  new  style 
could  be  largely  augmented  by  giv- 
ing to  it  greater  blackness  of  face. 
With  this  end  in  view,  the  designer  of  the  fat-face 
made  the  body  of  each  character  from  one-  Fat-face 
fourth  to  one-half  wider  than  that  of  the  made  for 
ordinary  text-letter.  Then  the  body-marks  display 
were  made  extremely  thick,  to  the  consequent  nar- 
rowing of  the  spaces  between  the  body-marks  and 
a  greater  shallowness  of  counter.  The  hair-lines 
were  cut  as  sharp  as  those  of  the  standard  roman 
text-letter.  So  treated,  the  fat-face  thoroughly  de- 
served its  name,  for  the  face  covered  the  body. 
The  relation  of  black  and  white  was  reversed: 
there  was  more  stem  than  counter  on  the  body, 

36  281 


282 


Early  Cuts  of  Fat-face 


and  more  black  than  white  in  the  print,  mak- 
ing it  really  blacker  than  the  ordinary  forms  of 
old  black-letter.  Job  printers  and  newspaper 
publishers  accepted  the  new  face  as  suitable  for 
display  lines,  and  for  the  title  lines  of  newspaper 
articles.  Its  frequent  employment  for  these  titles 
made  it  also  known  as  title-letter.  In  its  day  it 


PILASTER  STEREOTYPING 

Done  in  1 813  by  D.  &  O.  Bruce,  VV . 

No.  14-0. 

JOHN  WATTS  »  CO. 

Stereotyped  in  JYew  T"or&,  1813 

No.  141. 


Fat-face  or  title  of  an  early  cut  on  long-primer  body. 
George  Brace's  Son  &  Co. 

was  so  much  admired  that  it  was  occasionally  used 
as  a  text-letter  for  books.1  The  earlier  forms  of 
the  fat-face  are  still  shown  in  the  specimen  books, 
but  they  are  seldom  bought  or  used  by  printers  of 
our  time,  for  they  are  as  unprofitable  as  they  are 
ineffective.  The  stronger  impression  required  for 
the  stems  is  too  much  for  the  weak  hair-lines, 

1  In  1837,  I.  Ashmead  &  Co.  pages.     The  entire  text  of  this 

of    Philadelphia   published    an  book  is  in  pica  fat-face  of  the 

edition  of  "  Heavenly  Incense,  boldest  form.     The  forbidding 

or     the     Christian's     Compan-  solemnity  of  every  page  is  in- 

ion,"  a  chunky  octavo  of  612  describable. 


Modern  Cuts  of  Fat-face  283 

which  soon  break  down.  A  more  serious  defect 
is  the  shallowness  of  the  counters,  which  often 
become  choked  with  ink.  Fat-face  types  of  the 
old  form  are  therefore  practically  obsolete. 

The  fat-face  italic,  which  is  a  mate  of  the  fat- 
face  roman,  was  received  by  the  book  printers 
of  the  first  quarter  of  this  century  with  Fat-face 
marked  disapproval.  Italic  had  been  the  jtalic 
synonym  of  all  that  was  light  and  graceful  in 
type,  but  when  introduced  in  a  form  as  thick  and 
bold  as  that  of  black-letter,  all  book  printers  de- 
nounced it  as  an  uncouth  letter.  This  prejudice 
still  holds;  for  standard  books  fat-face  italic  is 
regarded  as  unsuitable.  As  a  job-letter  it  is  a 
favorite,  and  will  not  go  out  of  fashion.  For 
catalogue  work  many  persons  prefer  it  over  all 
forms  of  display  letter.  Recent  cuts  of  this  letter 
are  of  lighter  face  and  have  inclined  figures. 


STEREOTYPE  PLATES 
Made  by  Wm.  Ged,  in  Edinburgh,  1735 

No.  143. 

EARL    STANHOPE 
In  1802  made  good  plates  in  London 

No.  144. 


Title  or  bold-face  of  modern  cut  on  long-primer  body. 
George  Bruce's  Son  &  Co. 


284  Condensed  Titles 

In  the  newer  forms,  better  known  now  as  bold- 
face, many  of  the  objectionable  features  have  been 
New  cuts  of  removed.  The  stems  are  thinner,  the 
fat-face  counters  are  wider  and  deeper,  the  let- 
ters are  not  so  fat  and  are  of  more  pleasing  forms. 
For  the  side  headings  of  dictionaries  and  book- 
catalogues,  for  which  a  moderate  degree  of  prom- 
inence or  display  is  needed,  this  new  cut  of  title- 
type  is  accepted  in  books  in  which  no  other  style 
of  display  type  would  be  tolerated.  Much  to  the 
surprise  of  many  publishers,  it  has  been  proved 
that  this  lighter-faced  style  of  bold-face  is  really 
more  readable  and  more  durable  than  the  older 
styles  of  over-black  fat-faces. 

The  need,  or  the  supposed  need,  of  a  condensed 
form  of  bold-face  or  title-type  that  will  present 
condensed  ^e  greatest  boldness  in  the  narrowest 
forms  of  compass,  has  induced  all  founders  to 
bold-face  furnish  these  faces  on  condensed  and 
extra  condensed  bodies.  Many  of  them  are  made 
in  a  full  series  of  so-called  regular  bodies  in  capi- 
tals and  lower-case.  The  over-black  styles  with 

flat  and  feeble  ser- 
ifs, and  without  any 
proper  relief  of  con- 
trasting white  space 
An  over-biack  title  of  an  old  fashion.      in  their  counters,  are 
seldom  bought.     The  extra  condensed  forms  of 
lighter  face  and  better  cut  are  more  useful.     In 
the  narrow  measures  of  tables,  and  in  some  other 


same 


Condensed  Titles  285 

forms  of  printed  work,  they  are  of  occasional  ser- 
vice, but  they  are  grossly  misused  when  they  make 
print  indistinct  for  no  other  reason  than  the  sup- 
posed necessity  for  crowding  many  characters  in 
one  line.  The  extra  condensed  title  capitals  of  the 
French  founders,  once  much  admired  by  all  job 
printers,  are  now  deservedly  neglected. 

The  most  approved  form  of  condensed  title  is 
that  usually  named  Aldine.  Its  condensation  is 
slight,  for  the  larger  sizes  have  letters  Aidine 
not  much  thinner  than  those  of  the  ordi-  *>°ld-face 
nary  lean  text-letter.  Having  firm  hair-lines,  with 
deep  and  open  counters,  it  is  one  of  the  few  dis- 
play types  tolerated  in  fair  book-work.  The  Al- 


STEREOTYPING  BY  PRESSURE 
In  Semi-fluid  Metal,  by  Carez  of  Paris,  1786 

Aldine. 

STEREOTYPING  BY  PAI'IKR-MlllE  PROCESS 
Done  by  Genonx  of  Paris  in  1829  for  a  French  Dictionary 

Extra  condensed  title. 


Condensed  and  extra  condensed  title 
on  long-primer  body. 

dine  series  usually  shown  in  the  specimen  books 
of  type-founders  includes  twelve  bodies,  from  pearl 
to  eight-line  pica.  In  the  smaller  sizes  of  pearl  and 
nonpareil  this  style  loses  much  of  its  clearness. 


286 


Expanded  Titles 


Title-types  are  also  made  of  expanded  shape. 
The  face  first  made,  then  known  as  extended,  or 
Extended  fat-face  extended,  is  completely  and  de- 
fat-face  servedly  out  of  use.  The  specimens  here 
shown  are  plain  examples  of  the  absurdity  of  con- 
necting the  thickest  possible  stem  with  the  thinnest 


Two-line  pearl  extended,  No.  181. 


Brevier  extended,  No.  181. 


Joseph 


in 


Long-primer  title  expanded,  No.  182. 


Extended  and  expanded  titles. 
George  Bruce's  Son  &  Co. 

possible  hair-line.  When  so  made  the  composed 
types  are  deciphered  with  difficulty.  To  read  a 
word  one  has  to  study  carefully  the  outline  of 
each  character.  The  expanded  form  of  title  now 
in  use  is  not  so  broad,  and  is  of  better  cut,  but  it 
is  at  best  an  uncouth  style  of  letter,  and  not  so 
popular  or  so  useful  as  the  lighter  face  of  ex- 
panded roman  shown  in  the  chapter  on  modern 
faces  of  roman  text-letter. 


Old-style  Titles 


287 


Old-style  peculiarities  do  not  readily  lend  them- 
selves to  any  style  of  fat-face  or  title-letter,  but 
they  have  been  made  to  conform  to  this  oid-styie 
and  other  fashions  with  much  ingenuity.  fat-face 
The  clear  and  readable  effect  of  the  old-style  roman 
text-letter  is  produced  not  so  much  by  its  angular 
peculiarity,  or  any  other  mannerism  of  form,  as 


STEREOTYPE  SHAVER 

David  Bruce,  inventor,  18x4. 


Pica  old-style  title. 

by  its  relative  monotony  of  color,  its  thicker  and 
shortened  hair-line,  and  its  comparatively  narrow 
and  protracted  body-mark.  An  over- wide  fat-face 
type,  that  emphasizes  the  distinction  between  an 
over-thick  stem  and  an  over-thin  hair-line,  neces- 
sarily destroys  the  most  characteristic  feature  of 
the  old-style  letter.  It  then  becomes  necessary  to 
exaggerate  the  angular  mannerisms  of  the  style, 
but  these  can  be  shown  with  best  effect  in  the 
capitals  only.  The  stubby  serif,  the  shortened 
hair-line,  and  the  high-shouldered  arch  lose  much 
of  their  distinctive  character  when  affixed  to  the 
over-thick  stems  of  the  lower-case  sorts  of  an 
expanded  letter.  Old-style  title  so  made  may  be 
more  durable  and  more  readable  than  the  ordi- 
nary title,  but  it  cannot  be  considered  as  a  more 


288  A  New  Style  of  Title 

pleasing  form  of  letter.  Critical  publishers  who 
readily  accept  for  a  display  letter  any  cut  of  old- 
style  antique  refuse  to  take  an  old-style  title. 

Old-style  title  expanded  has  all  of  the  demerits 
and  but  few  of  the  merits  of  the  ordinary  form  of 
title  expanded.  It  is  never  used  as  a  book-type, 
but  only  as  a  fanciful  job-letter. 

The  old-style  title  condensed,  when  properly  cut, 
is  much  more  successful  in  preserving  old-style 
condensed  peculiarities  ;  largely  so  because  there 
old-style  is  more  opportunity  in  the  condensed 
bold-face  form  for  the  lengthening  of  the  stems 
and  the  shortening  of  the  hair-lines  of  the  lower- 
case. The  large  sizes  are  most  effective,  but  there 
are  cuts  of  condensed  and  extra  condensed  old- 
styles  in  frequent  use  that  are  especially  objec- 
tionable for  their  bad  design  and  bad  fitting. 


ALEXANDER  M.   TILLOCH 
Made  Stereotypes  in  Glasgow  1780 


Pica  De  Vinne. 

The  form  of  title-letter  that  fairly  preserves  the 
distinguishing  characteristics  of  the  old-style  is 
De  vinne  that  made  by  the  Central  Type  Foundry, 
bold-face  an^  "by  that  house  named  "  De  Vinne." 
The  general  form  of  this  new  style  is  mainly  based 
on  old-style  roman,  but  it  is  more  expanded,  and 


Recent  Styles  of  Title-type  289 

has  some  eccentricities  of  design  in  the  capital  let- 
ters. The  stems  are  not  over-thick,  and  the  so- 
called  hair-lines  have  width  enough  to  make  each 


SMCamdy 


Four-line  pica  De  Vinne. 

character  distinct  and  in  harmony  with  the  thick- 
ened stems.  It  has  the  undeniable  merits  of  sim- 
plicity of  form,  readability,  and  durability. 

A  still  bolder  form  of  title-type  has  been  recently 
introduced  under  the  name  of  "Atlas"  by  H.  W. 
Caslon  &  Co.  of  London.  It  is  much  blacker  than 
any  of  the  early  styles  of  title-type,  for  its  thin 
lines  are  fully  as  firm  as  those  of  a  doric  antique. 

The  faces  on  the  following  page,  although  of 
small  size  and  without  lower-case,  may  be  fairly 
classed  with  title-types.  They  were  made  by  Barn- 
hart  Brothers  &  Spindler  of  Chicago,  and  are 
known  as  Engraver's  Roman.  The  names  are 
those  of  some  of  the  punch-cutters  of  American 
type-foundries  of  the  nineteenth  century,  as  I  find 
them  in  a  series  of  articles  on  "Designers  and  En- 
gravers of  Type,"  written  by  "William  E.  Loy,  and 
published  in  the  "  Inland  Printer"  of  Chicago. 

37 


290     Punch-cutters  of  the  United  States 

AUGUST   E.  WOERNER, 
BORN  AT  FRANKFORT -AM-MAIN,  DECEMBER  18, 1844. 

RESIDENT  OF  NEW  YOKK.     DIED  uf  NEW  YORK,  JULY  27,  1896. 

JAMES  WEST, 
BORN  AT  EDINBURGH,  SCOTLAND,  IN  183O. 

A  T/FTX-  A  TSTTVF1T?   PHEMISTER, 

BORN  AT  EDINBURGH,  SCOTLAND,  IN  1829. 

DIED  AT  CHELSEA,  MASSACHUSETTS,  IN  1891. 

HERMAN   IHLENBURG, 
BORN  AT  BERLIN,  GERMANY,  IN  1843. 

RESIDENT  OF  PHILADELPHIA. 

SAMUEL,  SAWYER  KILBURN, 

BORN  AT  BUCKLAND,  MASSACHUSETTS,  DEC.,  1799. 

RESIDENT  OF  BOSTON.     DIED   DEC.,  1864. 

GUSTAV  F.  SCHROEDER, 
BORN  NEAR  BERLIN,  GERMANY,  IN  1861. 

HARRISON  T.  LOUNSBURY, 

BORN  NEAR  PEEKSKILL,  N.  Y.,  IN  1831.    DIED  IN  1892. 
W.  F.  CAPITAINE, 

BORIS  AT  SOUTH  GATE,  NEAR  IjONDON,  JANUARY,  1851. 

DAVID  BRUCE, 
BORN  AT  NEW  YORK,  FEB.  6,  18O2. 

RESIDENT  OF  NEW  YORK.     DIED  AT  BROOKLYN,   SEPT.  13,  1892. 

EDWARD  RUTHVEN, 
BORN  IN  SCOTLAND,  DEC.  31,  1811. 

ALEXANDER  KAY, 
BORN  AT  EDINBURGH,  JUNE  6,  1827. 

WILLIAM  W.  JACKSON, 
BORN  AT  CAMDEN,  NEW  JERSEY,  JULY  25,  1847. 

DIED  AT  ATLANTIC  CITY,  AUG.  14,  1898. 

ANDREW  GILBERT, 
BORN  AT  EDINBURGH  IN  1821. 

DIED  AT  CHELSEA,  MASSACHUSETTS,  JULY  25,  1873. 

JOHN  F.  CUMMING, 
BORN  AT  HARRIS VILLE,  PENNSYLVANIA,  MAY  20, 1852. 

JULIUS  HERBERT,  SR., 
BORN  AT  BRUNSWICK,  GERMANY,  FEB.  9,  1818. 

Four  faces  on  nonpareil  body,  of  which  three  are  here  shown. 


Black-letter 


eLACK-LETTER  is  a  degenerate  form 
of  the  roman  character.  Its  man- 
nerisms probably  began  with  copy- 
ists not  expert  at  curved  lines,  who 
had  to  form  each  letter  with  repeated 
strokes  of  the  reed.  If  the  parchment  kinked  or 
buckled,  if  the  paper  was  rough,  if  the  Beginning  of 
reed  sputtered,  repeated  strokes  were  waok-ietter 
all  the  more  obligatory.  Under  these  conditions 
the  portions  of  a  roman  letter  that  were  curved  in 
the  model  would  be  straightened  and  made  angu- 
lar at  every  junction  with  connecting  lines. 

Whatever  the  cause,  the  angular  character  which 
printers  call  black,  and  bibliographers  call  gothic,1 
was  the  form  approved  by  the  copyists  of  Europe 

1  Bibliographers  call  it  gothic     character  preferred  by  all  people 
because  it  has  always  been  the     of  Gothic  descent. 
291 


292       Preferred  by  Medieval  Copyists 

for  some  centuries  before  the  invention  of  printing. 
Little  text-writing  was  done  in  any  other  style. 
Italian  copyists  preferred  the  simple  open  forms 
which  seem  to  have  served  as  models  for  our  mod- 
ern roman  and  italic,  but  they  were  too  few  in 
number  to  change  the  prevailing  fashion.  The 
majority  of  copyists  adhered  to  black-letter,  and 
readers  who  knew  no  other  style  objected  to  all 
attempts  at  change. 

There  were  many  fashions  of  black-letter,  for 
there  was  no  generally  recognized  standard  of  au- 
oid  forms  of  thority  as  to  the  correct  form  of  letters, 
black-letter  an(j  e^fr  copyist  made  them  to  suit  his 
own  notions  of  propriety  or  convenience.  A  con- 
densed and  pointed  form  was  the  accepted  style 
for  books  of  devotion ;  a  rounder  and  more  care- 
less form  for  texts  or  for  writing  that  did  not 
seem  to  call  for  precision.  In  different  manu- 
scripts made  before  the  fourteenth  century  one 
finds  letters  that  are  condensed,  expanded,  of  light 
face,  of  dark  face,  with  plain  capitals,  with  nour- 
ished capitals,  but  all  of  them  are  of  an  angular 
style.  It  cannot  be  said  that  all  of  these  styles 
are  noticeably  black,  but  most  of  them,  espe- 
cially the  more  pointed  forms,  had  lines  so  thick 
that  more  black  than  white  appeared  on  the  writ- 
ten page.  The  English  name  of  black-letter  was 
given  to  this  character  only  after  the  introduction 
and  general  use  of  roman  printing-types.  The 
roman  type  was  then  called  white-letter  as  a  ready 


Preferred  by  Early  Printers          293 

name  of  distinction,  for  roman  showed  more  white 
than  black  upon  the  printed  page. 

To  modern  readers  all  the  early  styles  of  manu- 
script black-letter  are  perplexing.  One  must  study 
each  style  to  decipher  its  characters,  obscurity  of 
The  world  of  letters  is  not  conscious  early  form8 
of  its  indebtedness  to  the  art  of  typography  for 
its  enforcement  of  a  simplification  of  the  alpha- 
bet.1 Out  of  the  many  styles  then  in  fashion  the 
early  printers  selected  but  two ;  probably  because 
they  were  of  simple  forms,  popular  with  readers, 
and  easy  to  be  made  in  type.  One  was  the  pointed 
black-letter,  now  known  to  French  bibliographers 
as  the  lettre  de  forme.2  This  was  the  standard  or 
formal  letter  which  was  preferred  for  all  the  care- 
fully written  books.  The  other  style,  the  round 

1 "  So  much  beauty  or  dignity  Politioribus  characterum  typis." 

was  supposed  to  be  inherent  in  Greswell,  "  Annals  of  Parisian 

this  distortion  of  the  alphabet,  Typography,"  p.  14.     London, 

that  a  treatise  of  one  of  the  1818. 

schoolmen,  printed  at  Venice  by  2  The   "  Bible  of    Forty-two 

Giov.  di  Colonna  and  J.  Man-  Lines,"  supposed  to  have  been 

then,  bears  with  it  this  com-  printed  before  1455  by  Guten- 

mendation,  that  it  is  executed  berg  of  Mentz;   the  "Psalter" 

sublimiliterarum  effigie  ;  and  the  of  1457,  printed  by   Fust  and 

" Conciliator  Medicines"  of  the  Schceffer  of  Mentz;   the  small 

year  1483  has  this  subscription,  books  attributed  by  some  to  Cos- 

charactere  jucundissimo  M.  Jo-  ter  of    Haarlem  between  1423 

annis  Herbert  Alemanni,  cujus  and  1440,  and  by  others  to  some 

vis  et  ingenium  facile  superemi-  unknown  printer  of  the  Nether- 

nent   omnes.     In  1525   Nicolas  lands  before  1476;  the  "  Books 

Prevost   at   Paris  writes  of  a  of  Hours  "and  many  other  books 

Gothic  impression,  Opus  pulchro  of  merit  of  the   early  French 

literanim    charactere     politissi-  printers,  are  in  different   sizes 

mum.    Another  French  printer  and  fashions    of   the    lettre  de 

of  1520  commends  his  book  as  forme. 


294      Pointed  Black  and  Round  Black 

gothic,  is  known  as  the  lettre  de  somme^  and  it 
was  the  style  most  approved  for  ordinary  books. 


Hbcbefgb 


Lettre  de  forme.  Lettre  de  somme. 


Modern  imitations  of  early  styles  of  black-letter. 

The  form  of  black-letter  most  approved  by  Eng- 
lish readers  is  the  pointed  form,  which  Blades  says 
is  modeled  on  the  lower-case  letters  of 
the  "Bible  of  Forty-two  Lines."2  Al- 
though it  has  been  supplanted  as  a  text-letter  by 
the  roman,  it  is  so  identified  with  early  English 
printing  that  it  fairly  deserves  its  generally  ac- 
cepted name  of  Old  English.  The  specimen  on 
pica  body  (page  295)  was  cast  from  matrices  sunk 
in  the  early  part  of  the  sixteenth  century,  probably 
in  Rouen,  France,  whose  type-founders  then  sup- 
plied England  with  its  best  types.  The  larger 
bodies  are  old,  but  of  later  date.  The  body-marks 
of  this  style  are  thick,  and  the  characters  are  so 

1  The  "  Letters  of  Indulgence  "  Even  in  Italy,  Nicholas  Jenson , 

of  1453  and  1454,  and  the  "Ca-  after  his  introduction  of  roman 

tholicon"  of  1460,  attributed  to  types,  found  it  expedient  to  print 

Gutenberg,  as  well  as  the  Latin  books  in  this  round  gothic  to 

"Bible  of  1462  "printed  by  Peter  suit  the  tastes  of  unscholarly 

Schosffer,   are  in  the    lettre  de  book-buyers. 

somme.    The  ordinary  reader  of  2  This  form  was  sparingly  used 

the  sixteenth  century  preferred  by  Caxton   between    1479  and 

this  style  to  the  pointed  gothic  1483,  but  always  with  capitals 

and  to    the    roman    character,  in  the  Flemish  style. 


Pointed  Black-letter  295 

closely  fitted  that  it  well  deserves  the  name  of 
black.  Some  of  the  capitals  (not  in  the  Flemish 
but  in  the  French  style)  are  uncouth,  but  the  gen- 
eral effect  of  a  printed  page  is  pleasing.  It  is  fre- 
quently selected  for  lines  or  words  of  prominence 
by  lawyers,  and  for  a  formal  text  by  ecclesiastics. 
The  official  copy  of  English  statute  law  continues 
to  be  printed  in  this  early  style  of  black-letter. 


>ptrttuei  or  Cetnporel 

to  bpe  onp  $pe£  of  ttoo  or  tfjree  comemo^ 
ration  of  ^aiiflwri  Ufc  enprpnteb  after 
t|)e  forme  of  t|)i£  #ref et  Slettrc,  tttfjicf) 
Ben  tori  anb  trulp  correct  late  i)pm  come 
to  JBcftmoncfter,  in  to  tf)e  3Mmoncfrpe> 
at  tf)e  &ee&  ^ale,  an&  i)e  fl^al  tjaue  tfjeiti 
Cije^e*  4*4*  £uj)#Iicio  ftet  ce&ula. 


Real  Old  English  on  pica  and  larger  bodies,  leaded. 
Sir  Charles  Reed's  Sons,  London. 

Pickering  selected  it  for  his  Victorian  edition  of 
the  "  Book  of  Common  Prayer."  Moxon  com- 
mends it  as  a  style  that  should  be  in  the  stock  of 


296  Flemish  Slack-letter 

every  master  printer.  It  is  more  in  fashion  now 
than  it  has  been  at  any  time  during  the  past  cen- 
tury, for  the  stringent  rule  that  excludes  almost 
every  other  style  from  the  standard  book  tolerates 
and  often  commends  the  occasional  employment 
of  a  good  form  of  black-letter. 

For  the  facsimile  reprinting  of  fifteenth-century 
books,  abbreviations  on  pica  body  have  been  pro- 
vided, but  they  are  not  made  for  the  larger  bodies. 


Strictly  German  styles  of  black-letter  have  never 

been  used  for  book-texts  at  any  period  by  English 

publishers.    In  the  beginning  English 

Old  Flemish     r    ,  ,.  ,  ,-,,-,          ^     .     , 

publishers  had  to  buy  their  best  types 
from  foreign  founders,  and  sometimes  to  get  books 
made  by  foreign  printers,  but  they  never  selected 
the  fractur,  schwabacher,  German  text,  or  any  of 


_,,.j  ftoob,  a  German  torn 

'  tfoe  Citp  of  Cologne, 
_._t  fa  tf)\4  curioutf  ^ooh  fcifc  print, 
Co  aH  Jl^en  mafeetft  fenoton. 
2Cnd  fti^  0ooD  partner 


aib  tftem  Beaten !  tfoat 
Venetian 


Black-letter  in  the  Flemish  style  on  brevier  body,  solid. 
Sir  Charles  Reed's  Sons. 


Flemish  Grosse  Bdtarde  297 

the  German  styles.  When  English  printers  could 
not  buy  from  the  type-founders  of  France,  they 
went  to  those  of  the  Low  Countries.  The  illustra- 
tion on  the  previous  page  shows  an  early  form  of 
English  black-letter  with  some  Flemish  manner- 
isms of  the  sixteenth  century.  In  the  modern  form 
of  Flemish  black-letter  these  peculiarities  are  re- 
tained. It  will  be  noticed  that  it  is  an  entirely 
distinct  style,  and  that  it  seriously  differs  from 
the  accepted  fashion  of  G-erman  text-letter. 

The  book  in  which  the  English  language  was 
first  printed1  is  of  another  Flemish  style,  made 
after  the  design  of  some  unknown  The  Flemish, 
copyist,  who  wrote  with  a  free,  flour-  s1"0886  *>atarde 
ishing  hand.  Although  printed  in  English,  it  was 
not  printed  on  English  soil.  The  type  first  used  by 
Caxton  in  England,  and  probably  made  in  Bruges, 
was  of  the  same  style,  but  Blades  describes  it  as 
"more  dashing,  picturesque  and  elaborate."  This 
style  was  then  known  in  France  as  the  grosse  M- 
tarde.  It  does  not  appear  to  have  been  much 
liked  by  English  readers,  for  Caxton  did  not  use 
it  exclusively,  and  it  was  not  renewed  by  his  suc- 

iThe  "Recuyell  of  the  His-  printed  before  1474  by  Caxton  at 

toryes  of  Troye."  Translated  in  the  monastery  of  Weidenbach, 

1469-1471,  but  without  place  or  near  Cologne,  where  Caxton  and 

date.    According  to  Blades  this  Mansion  were   acquiring  their 

book  was  printed  by  William  knowledge  of  typography.    It  is 

Caxton  about  1474,  and  probably  a  style  of  type  not  at  all  English, 

in  the  printing-house  of  Colard  "Lettres    d'un    bibliographe," 

Mansion    at  Bruges.     Accord-  quatrieme  serie,  pp.  13-30.  8vo. 

ing  to  J.  P.  A.  Madden,  it  was  Paris,  1875. 

38 


298 


Caxton's  Favorite  Character 


cessors.  After  long  neglect  it  was  revived  in  1855 
by  Vincent  Figgins  of  London  for  a  facsimile  edi- 
tion of  Caxton's  "  Game  and  Playe  of  the  Chesse." 


3  0abe  no*  (fttoeb  ne  QU  jm; 


3  c 

teas  in  ®uf  c#e,  <mb  8g  meTJJifftn  Carton 
f  rdn0fdf  eb  in  to  f  fli*  tube  4r  Bgmpfe  (B 


e  of^u^n^f  0e  ^ere  of  our  feorb 


(Ebtwarb  f  ^e  itii^ 
gief  orge  of  (gegnarb  f  ^e 


JE>ere  (Bnbef  ^  f  ^e 


Old  Flemish  black  used  by  Caxton. 

It  has  since  been  cut  by  other  English  or  German 
founders  in  many  sizes,  from  nonpareil  to  six-line 
pica.  Printers  have  reinstated  it  as  a  valuable 


(TU  (p  Q  (g 


letter  for  the  reprints  of  early  English  or  Flemish 
books,  and  it  is  freely  used  for  mottos,  quotations, 
and  for  title  headings  in  catalogues  of  books. 


Round  Black-letter  299 

The  same  desire  for  novelty  has  led  to  the  re- 
vival of  the  old  fashion  of  round  gothic,  or  lettre 
de  somme,  which  now  appears  as  a  more  oid  black,  or 
carefully  cut  letter,  under  the  name  of  round  s°tllic 
old  black.  It  seems  to  be  a  careful  reproduction 
of  a  style  of  letter  preferred  by  many  Spanish 
printers  of  the  fifteenth  century.  It  is  now  made 
in  a  full  series  of  sizes,  from  nonpareil  to  eight- 


fnc  impressa  la  pre= 

sente  Carta  be  IRelacion 
en  la  imperial  Ciubab  be 

Golebo  por  (Bafpar  be  avila,  Hcabo 
fe  a  vepnte  bias  bel  mes  be  ©ctu* 
bre.  Hno  bel  nadmiento  be  nuef* 
tro  faluabor  Jefu  Cbriftp  be  mil  i 
quinientos  i  v  ve?nte  cinco  anos. 


Old  black  on  pica  and  double  small-pica  bociies. 

line  pica,  but  all  of  them  are  incompletely  provided 
with  abbreviating  characters.  The  round  lower- 
case letters  have  unusual  height;  the  ascenders, 
descenders,  and  capitals  are  correspondingly  short- 
ened. It  is  a  useful  letter  for  reprints  of  early 
books,  and  is  frequently  selected  for  headings  or 
display  lines  in  the  advertisements  of  publishers. 


300 


Black  of  Sixteenth  Century 


For  more  than  three  centuries  English  type- 
founders adhered  with  great  tenacity  to  the  form 
of  pointed  black  that  had  been  provided  for  them 
by  the  early  French  and  Flemish  founders.  The 
model  letters  drawn  by  Moxon  in  1676  for  his 
"Rules  of  the  Three  Orders  of  Print  Letters  " 


From  Moxon's  "Mechanick  Exercises." 

show  no  important  departure  from  those  used  by 
Pynson  and  Wynkyn  de  Worde.  Nor  was  any 
change  made  by  English  founders  of  the  seven- 
teenth or  eighteenth  century  that  would  justify 


SDje  ftolp  ano  blesftefc  sooctour  &apnt  31erom 
saptt)  tty?0  SUictorpte,  SDo  altoei?e  somme  &OOD 
OTtrbe  to  ttimue  tljat  tty  sr>eu0  fpnae  tlje  not 
^Dle*  SlnD  ttie  l)ol^  SDoctour  &atnt  &u$tyn 
0ai?tt)  in  t\)t  ilBoob  of  tlje  ILabour  of  aponte  t^at 
no  span  &tronge  or  Sgpgliti?  to  ILaboute  ougljt 

tO  b0  ^DU*-»€-^-^*^»-»€»->€*-^-»€-^-^*  Golden  Legend. 


Old  English  black  of  the  sixteenth  century,  leaded. 
Sir  Charles  Reed's  Sons. 


Fat-faced  Black  301 

the  naming  of  any  one  of  their  new  cuts  as  that  of 
a  distinct  style. 

The  first  novelty  attempted  in  the  form  of  black- 
letter  was  that  of  the  fat-faced  black,  which  ap- 
peared at  or  near  the  beginning  of  this  Fat-faced 
century  when  the  fat-faced  romans  were  biack-ietter 
popular.  Hansard1  denounced  it  as  "a  fanciful 
but  ridiculous  innovation";  Dibdin  sneered  at  it 
as  " gouty  and  frightful";  but  these  censures  did 


»!)!)  trots  J)C  [a  famous  prin- 
ter of  aoniron]  atiSf  maun 
otfjer  ijarws  \tHH 
airojit 


tristractinfl  antf  JCaste-reboitfnfl  form  of 
iJlarft^letter  too  frequently  tnmile  on  tfje 
^Frontispieces  of  \)in  JBoofes?  2Let  tfje 
dftjost  of  fflSa^nfefn  tre  21Sortre  ijautrt  Ijtm 
till  Ije  atiantron  it.2  •  <•  .<*.  ^  .<».<» 


Fat-faced  black  on  pica  and  long-primer  bodies. 

i  "  As  a  British  classic  type,  it  mixing  in  the  list  the  modern 
[Old  English]  must  be  regarded  fanciful  (but  ridiculous)  inno- 
with  veneration  in  England,  as  vations,  only  called  Blacks  from 
the  character  in  which  Wynkyn  the  quantity  of  ink  they  are  ca- 
de Worde  .  .  .  first  exercised  pable  of  carrying."  Hansard, 
the  art,  and  therefore  I  shall  "Typographia."  p.  404. 
include  Blacks  in  the  Synopsis ;  2  Dibdin, ' '  Bibliographical  De- 
but studiously  abstaining  from  cameron,"  ii,  407. 


302          Modern  French  Black-letter 

not  prevent  its  employment.  Many  of  the  larger 
foundries  made  it  in  a  full  series  of  sizes  from 
brevier  to  six-line  pica.  For  thirty  years  or  more 
it  was  preferred  by  printers  to  the  older  form, 
which  was  set  aside  as  uncouth  and  obsolete. 

The  designers  of  the  early  forms  of  black-letter 
avoided  hair-lines;  the  designer  of  the  fat-faced 
black  studiously  tried  to  introduce  them  in  places 
where  they  were  not  needed.  He  also  attempted 
to  make  the  stems  of  some  of  the  capitals  conf  onn 
to  the  shape  of  the  roman  capital.  These  changes 
are  no  improvement  on  the  old  models. 

In  France  and  Germany  these  fat-faced  blacks 
were  never  as  popular  as  they  were  in  England. 
French  form  of  The  continental  founders  modernized 
black-letter  the  early  forms  in  another  direction. 
This  is  the  style  now  preferred  in  France,  which 
has  also  been  accepted  to  some  extent  in  England 
and  the  United  States,  as  a  proper  style  for  lines 
of  display  in  good  work.  At  its  introduction  it 
had  the  merit  of  novelty,  but  a  modern  reader 


©f  making  manj  Saak0 

tl)mt0n0<0n&;  attbmucl) 
is  a  tDearine00  of  tl)e 


A  French  black-letter  of  modern  cut. 


German  Styles  of  Black-letter        303 

fails  to  see  in  it  any  point  of  superiority  when 
put  in  comparison  with  the  English  black-letter 
of  the  sixteenth  century;  yet  it  has  the  negative 
merit  of  few  serifs  at  the  angles.  Unfortunately 
it  has  not  been  made  in  a  full  series  of  sizes. 

Neither  the  precise  pointed  gothic  nor  the  more 
careless  round  gothic  seems  to  have  been  entirely 
acceptable  to  the  uncritical  German  Fracturand 
reader  of  the  fifteenth  century.  There  schwabacher 
was  a  desire  for  types  that  should  be  more  careless 
and  unconventional,  in  imitation  of  the  letters  of 


German-text. 


a  hasty  manuscript.  A  few  of  the  eccentric  styles 
of  black-letter  then  in  fashion  were  reproduced,  of 
which  three  still  retain  their  old  popularity — the 
fractur,  the  schwabacher,  and  the  German  text.1 

1  The  broad-faced  style  of  the  tremely  condensed  fractur  first 

schwabacher  was  first  made  in  appeared  in  a  good  form  in  the 

a  very  rude  form  by  Rewichs  of  "Theuerdank"  of  Hans  Schoen- 

Mentz,  in  1486,  although  some  sperger,  Nuremberg,  1517.    The 

of   its  peculiar  characters  are  text  was  adorned  with  flourished 

noticeable  in  the  types  of  Peter  initials  which  have  served  as  the 

Sehceffer.     The  slender  and  ex-  models  for  modern  German  text. 


304  Fractur  and  Schwabacher 

The  fractur  is  still  the  preferred  text-letter  for 
the  newspapers  and  ordinary  books  of  Germany. 
For  scientific  books  the  antiqua  or  roman  is  usu- 
ally selected,  and  it  is  also  more  frequently  used 
for  the  letters  of  coins,  medals,  and  sign-boards. 


bet  Sfteffung,  mit  bem  Qiidd 
mtb  ricfytfcfyetyt,  in  ginien  (Sbnen  »n  gcm^en 
Sorporen,  burd)  2ttbre^t  £)urer  jnfamen  $t* 
jogen,  im  bnrd)  jn  felb^  nun  alien  lunft  lief>* 
in  trud  geben*  1538. 


Fractur  on  pica  body,  leaded. 
George  Brace's  Son  &  Co. 

The  schwabacher  is  a  rounder,  clearer,  and  sim- 
pler form,  largely  used  for  display,  and  to  some 
extent  as  a  text-letter.  The  German-text,  once 
popular  as  a  display  letter  in  book  titles,  is  now 
little  used,  and  only  in  ornamental  job  printing. 


3d?  bin  gefcfyicf et  mit  fcer  press, 
So  id?  attfftrag  ben  ^irniss  ress ; 
So  balb  mein  Dienr  Den  3engel  311^! 
So  ift  ein  Bogn  papyrs  getoucft 
£}ans  Sadjs. 


Schwabacher  on  pica  body,  solid. 
James  Conner's  Sons. 


German-text  and  Composite 


305 


German  founders  have  devised  other  forms  of 
black-letter,  which  are  occasionally  seen  in  Ger- 


Modern  German-text. 
George  Bruce's  Son  &  Co. 

man  books.  Some  of  them  have  been  reproduced 
by  our  American  founders,  but  only  after  they 
have  been  divested  of  most  of  their  unacceptable 
German  mannerisms.  The  composite,  Teutonic, 


35ene ;  JHefius,  si 


Composite. 


39 


306  Borussian 

and  Borussian  are  freely  accepted  by  American 
printers  as  useful  text-letters  or  display  letters 
for  legal  formularies.  At  least  a  score  of  distinct 
styles  can  be  seen  in  the  specimen  books  of  the 
large  German  foundries,  most  of  them  cut  in  a 
full  series  of  sizes.  Many  are  admirably  drawn 


i  Smpsit  Smpta 

Slid  <Dc#tw  sit  JJcnediota. 


Borussian  of  bold-face. 

and  engraved,  but  they  are  put  aside  by  American 
founders  as  too  fantastic  for  common  readers  j  yet 
they  are  not  more  fantastic  than  many  black-let- 
ters of  American  origin. 

During  the  past  thirty  years,  American  type- 
founders have  devised  many  entirely  new  forms 


fading  mafetf  a  luff  Man, 
Sonfetence  a  Heady  Han, 
Mating  an  feact  Man. 


Borussian  of  light-face. 


American  Styles  of  Black  307 

of  black-letter  or  pointed  text.  Card  text,  Anglo- 
saxon,  Franklin,  medieval  text,  fancy  text,  title 
text,  eureka  text,  scribe  text,  modern  text,  Italian 
text,  sloping  black,  expanded  black,  are  the  names 


(Sraffg  men  ©anfemn 
-Simple  men  ^Cbnxire  fhem  ; 
men  ^ICoe  fhem. 


Teutonic  on  english  body. 

of  but  a  few  of  the  novelties  designed  for  job 
printers.  Many  of  these  styles  are  varied  by  orna- 
mental outlines,  or  by  ruled  cross-lines,  or  shades, 
or  inlays.  All  have  been  made  in  the  lithographic 
or  the  copperplate  style,  with  very  sharp  and  long 
hair-lines,  most  of  them  with  serifs  bristling  on 
every  angle.  Although  of  simpler  form  than  the 
German  novelties,  their  overworked  delicacy  and 
refinement  of  cut,  and  their  excess  of  flourish  and 
ornament,  make  them  so  feeble  and  ineffective 
that  they  are  properly  excluded  from  book- work. 
Exception  to  this  general  condemnation  may 
be  made  in  favor  of  a  few  new  styles.  The  Au- 
gustan black,  of  as  light  face  as  the  weakness  of 
ordinary  roman,  is  a  remarkably  grace-  new  styles 
ful  letter.  The  same  praise  must  be  given  to  the 
condensed  blacks  of  light-face  and  of  bold-face. 
Tested  by  mechanical  standards,  they  seem  fault- 
less in  design,  spacing,  engraving,  and  fitting-up. 


308          Weakness  of  Modern  Styles 

The  characters,  harmonious  in  every  combination, 
impress  the  reader  with  their  honest,  painstaking 
workmanship.  Yet  they  are  thoroughly  feminine 
in  effect  —  so  made  by  over-refinement  in  cutting, 
and  by  the  needless  decorations  of  nourished  serifs 


C|tt  trisnptik  into  fo^ 

letter  of  tfr is  rut  [Jfal-faa]  jras  fallen  fms 
probablg  arisen  fnrm  Ifcgligwa,  f  nattw- 
tionanb  Wi&ni  of  Caste.  .  .  .  Jftisfriffr- 
rult  t0  ittfaestigate  antr  spenfg  t^e  qualities 
to^k^  ronstitut^  §tautg:  but  Jfatrass 
s^^ms  to  ^abe  bmt  nmsifreretr  bg  %  ^et- 
ter-f0unir^rs  as  an  atoquate  Substitute  far 
all  sur^  qualities/ 


Augustan  black  on  pica  and  double-pica  bodies. 
George  Bruce's  Son  &  Co. 

and  hair-lines.  One  has  but  to  contrast  them  with 
the  sturdy  styles  of  the  old  printers  to  understand 
why  men  of  letters  keep  them  out  of  standard 
books.  When  these  blacks  are  selected  for  the 
headings  of  a  chapter,  or  for  the  running-title, 
their  incongruity  with  the  roman  text  is  startling. 

1  Hansard,  "Typographia,"  p.  617. 


Obscurity  of  New  Styles  309 


with 

t  weve  ewtitrig  to 


had  neavttj 


Condensed  black  of  bold-face  on  long-primer  body. 
George  Brace's  Son  &  Co. 

This  mischievous  tendency  to  over-refinement 
in  the  designing  of  types  has  effectually  spoiled 
and  kept  out  of  general  use  two  char-  obscurity  of 
acteristic  styles  of  early  black-letter.  churcl1  text 
The  church  text,  as  one  may  still  see  it  upon  in- 
scriptions on  tombs  and  tablets  in  some  of  the  old 
English  and  German  churches,  is  an  ecclesiastic 
letter  of  marked  grace.  In  the  types  here  shown, 
the  general  form  is  above  reproach,  for  every  let- 
ter has  been  carefully  studied  from  good  models. 
In  these  model  letters  on  the  stone  or  in  the  brass 
hair-lines  were  carefully  subdued,  but  in  the  type 
the  hair-lines  and  the  knobby  serifs  have  been 
thrust  in  where  they  were  n6t  needed.  The  re- 
sult is  disappointing,  for  the  strong  character  of 

l  Silvestre, ' '  Universal  Palseo-  erick  Madden,  vol.  ii,  p.  652.  8vo. 
graphy,"  translation  of  Sir  Fred-  London,  1849. 


310        Church  Text  and  Chapel  Text 

the  letter  has  been  destroyed  by  the  addition  of 
these  feminine  graces.  Churchmen  who  know  and 
esteem  this  letter  for  its  appropriateness  in  eccle- 
siastic work  refuse  to  use  it,  condemning  it  for 
the  faults  of  delicacy  and  obscurity. 


Cur  Ittunairant  mim 


Church  text  on  canon  and  smaller  bodies. 
Sir  Charles  Reed's  Sons. 

The  chapel  text  is  a  modern  variation  of  the  old 
church  text.  It  is  not  so  condensed,  and  should 
weakness  of  be  more  easily  read.  The  capitals  are 
chapel  text  no^  unpleasantly  ornamented,  for  the 
decorative  lines  are  entirely  inside  of  the  letter 
proper,  leaving  a  sharp  and  clear  outline.  This 
feature  should  make  the  capitals  useful  for  the 
rubrics  of  liturgical  work,  but  the  stems  of  the 
capitals,  although  without  hair-lines,  are  too  thin 
to  retain  the  amount  of  color  that  is  needed  for  a 


Chapel  Text  and  Saxon  311 

rubric.  In  the  lower-case  the  punch-cutter  has 
practically  conjoined  all  the  letters  with  angular 
knobs  or  serifs  where  they  are  not  needed,  by  try- 
ing to  make  the  short  letters  line  at  the  top  as 
well  as  at  the  bottom.  The  entirely  unnecessary 
graces  of  occasional  flourishes,  and  pendants,  and 
over-sharp  hair-lines,  have  made  the  weak  and 
obscure  lower-case  a  bad  mate  for  the  capitals. 
Difficult  to  read  in  black  ink,  it  becomes  almost 
unreadable,  certainly  ineffective,  when  printed  in 
the  prescribed  scarlet  red.  Therefore  the  church- 
man neglects  it,  preferring  the  old  form  of  black- 
letter,  not  for  the  uncouthness  of  its  capitals,  but 
for  its  legibility,  since  the  broader  surface  of  the 
character  permits  it  to  be  easily  read,  even  when 
printed  in  the  palest  of  scarlet. 


Chapel  text. 

The  Saxon  is  another  example  of  the  danger  of 
emasculating  a  strong  letter.  The  delicate  finials 
and  interlaced  lines  of  this  style,  as  they 

J  /      Saxon  black 

may  be  seen  in  early  manuscripts,  did 

not  weaken  but  intensified  the  strength  of  the 

Saxon  style,  for  these  finials  and  interfacings  were 


312  Saxon  and  Anglo-black 

usually  in  pale  color,  and  were  a  contrast  to  the 
stronger  lines  or  stems  of  the  letter.  When  cut 
in  outline  these  ornaments  become  too  prominent, 
and  the  strength  of  the  character  is  destroyed. 


Ornamented  Saxon  on  meridian  body. 

The  designer  of  the  Anglo-black  has  given  a 

good  imitation  of  an  incised  letter,  in  the  gothic 

style,  cut  in  stone  by  different  blows  of 

Anglo-black       , J  J 

the  chisel.  It  has  no  beauty  of  form  to 
recommend  it,  but  is  an  appropriate  letter  for  the 
representation  of  inscriptions  on  tombstones. 


Johnnie  itarnegie  lais  hear, 
Descenbit  of  A&am  an&  £ue, 

iBif  ony  can  gang  hieher, 
3'$e  milling  gie  him  leue. 


Anglo-black  on  pica  body. 


Medieval  313 

The  medieval,  although  not  in  the  pointed  style, 
is  usually  classed  with  black-letter.  It  is  admi- 
rably adapted  for  rubrication,  but  its  use  Medieval 
in  that  field  is  limited,  for  it  is  made  in  black 
three  sizes  only.  The  capitals  seem  to  be  the  mod- 
ification of  a  mongrel  type  first  made  by  William 
Le  Rouge  of  Paris  in  1512,  as  a  rival  to  italic.  The 


Ijfot  (Dpns  €{f  Nitons 


Medieval  on  meridian  and  double  small-pica  bodies. 

broad  Byzantine  capitals  were  bad  mates  for  the 
condensed  lower-case. 

Many  meritorious  novelties  in  black-letter  have 
been  introduced  recently  by  the  type-founders  of 
Germany,  but  the  relatively  limited  use  of  the 
German  character  in  this  country  does  not  allow 
here  any  more  than  respectful  mention. 

40 


314  The  Bradley  Series 

A  recent  novelty  in  black-letter  is  the  bold-face 
designed  by  Mr.  Will  H.  Bradley,  which  has  been 
introduced  to  the  printing  trade  by  the  American 
Type  Founders  Company  in  eight  sizes,  ranging 
from  6-point  to  48-point,  under  the  name  of  the 
Bradley  series.  The  series  first  made  has  remark- 
ably bold  letters,  with  peculiarities  of  form  never 
before  attempted.  Among  job  printers,  and  to 
some  extent  with  advertisers,  the  Bradley  is  rated 
as  a  valuable  type  for  display. 


Co  tbe  Reader.  Klbo  faulted)  not, 
liuetb  not;  who  mendetb  faults  is 
commended:  Cbe  Printer  batb 
faulted  a  little :  it  may  be  tbe  Hu= 
tbor  oversigbted  more.  Cby  paine 
(Reader)  is  tbe  leaste;  Cben  erre 
not  tbou  most  by  misconstruing  or 
by  sbarpe  censuring ;  lest  tbou  be 
more  uncbaritable  tban  either  of 
tbem  batb  been  beedlesse:  dod 
amend  and  guide  us  all. 


Robartes  on  Tythes,  4to,  Cambridge,  1613. 


XI 


Gothic 

[OTHIC  is  a  misleading  name.  Or- 
dinary readers  and  book -collectors 
give  it  to  all  the  older  forms  of  black- 
letter,  but  American  type-founders 
apply  it  to  a  sturdy  type  that  has 
neither  serif  nor  hair-line.  The  gothic  of  the  type- 
founder was  not  derived  from  black-let-  The  simplest 
ter,  and  has  no  resemblance  to  it.  Its  f°rmof  type 
capitals  are  a  rude  imitation  of  the  classical  Greek 
and  Roman  lapidary  character.  Probably  it  was 
called  gothic  because  the  style  first  put  in  type  was 
as  bold  and  black  as  that  of  the  black-letter  gothic 
manuscript.  Some  English  type-founders  call  it 
sans-serif,  but  others  call  it  grotesque  and  also 
gothic. 

Of  all  styles  this  is  the  plainest.  It  has  no  use- 
less lines ;  in  its  regular  or  ordinary  shape,  each 
character  is  distinct,  and  not  to  be  mistaken  for 

315 


316  Gothic  a  Preferred  Style 

any  other.  For  this  reason  it  is  the  style  selected 
for  the  raised  letters  that  are  made  for  the  blind, 
to  be  read  by  the  sense  of  touch.  Many  adverti- 


A  LIGHTER  FACE  OF  GOTHIC 

provided  with  irregularfigures  of  old-style 

No.  1. 

A  GOTHIC  OF  MEDIUM   FACE 
condensed  and  with  a  full  lower-case 

No.  2. 

BOLD-FACE  GOTHIC 

with  a  rugged  lower-case 

No.  3. 

A  GOTHIC  NOT  SO  BLACK 
with  bold  and  distinct  lower-case 

No.  4. 

AN    EXTENDED  GOTHIC 
lower-case  and  figures 


Five  styles  of  gothic  on  pica  body. 

sers  prefer  it  over  all  other  styles  for  the  purpose 
of  bold  display.  Many  printers  prefer  it  for  its 
greater  durability :  it  has  no  serifs  to  be  bruised, 
and  no  hair-lines  to  be  gapped. 


Defects  of  the  Gothic  Style  317 

The  bold-face  gothic,  No.  3  of  the  illustration 
(on  page  316),  appears  to  best  advantage  in  the 
larger  sizes.  When  the  body  is  small,  the  thicker 
lines  occupy  too  much  of  the  face,  and  letters  like 
E,  A,  F,  S,  a,  e,  s,  and  indeed  all  characters  with 
a  central  crossing  line,  have  too  little  relief  of 
interior  white  space. 

The  medium  face,  No.  4,  and  the  lighter  face, 
No.  2,  are  much  more  readable,  and  are  preferred 
for  display. 

The  old-style  figures  of  the  lighter  face  No.  1 
are  often  selected  for  tables  in  which  the  greatest 
distinctness  is  desired. 

The  extended  gothic,  No.  5,  also  has  old-style 
figures,  but  its  lower-case  characters  are  not  so 
popular.  Nor  can  its  capitals  be  used  effectively 
without  a  special  and  irregular  spacing  between 
single  letters.  Where  letters  with  perpendicular 
lines  like  those  in  H  I  M  meet,  one  has  to  put 
spaces  between  to  keep  them  apart  at  proper  dis- 
tance. When  letters  with  angled  lines  like  LAV 
meet,  an  awkward  gap  of  white  space  appears  be- 
tween these  irregular  letters,  which  should  compel 
the  compositor  to  give  a  wider  spacing  to  all  other 
letters  in  the  line.1  Gothic  calls  for  more  care  in 
spacing  than  any  other  style. 

1  Although  this  remark  can  serifs  like  those  of  the  Elzevir, 
be  applied  to  all  letters,  even  to  It  is  probable  that  the  long  serif 
roman  and  italic,  it  is  especially  first  made  by  Jaugeon  of  Paris 
applicable  to  gothic,  and  to  any  was  invented  to  conceal  or  mod- 
style  that  has  short  and  stubby  ify  this  blemish. 


318          Gothics  of  Condensed  Shape 

The  absence  of  projecting  serifs  in  the  gothic 
style  allows  its  letters  to  be  compressed  with  but 
a  moderate  loss  of  readability,  as  may  be  seen  in 


A  CONDENSED  GOTHIC  BOLD-FACE 
lower-case  with  short  descenders 

No.  6. 

THIS  GOTHIC  CONDENSED 
is  of  a  lighter  face  and  on  a  wider  set 

No.  7. 

GOTHIC  CONDENSED.  NO  LOWER-CASE 

No.  8. 

A  PICA  GOTHIC,  EXTRA  CONDENSED  AND  OF  A  VERY  FLIMSY  FACE 
In  which  compression  has  been  made  at  the  expense  of  legibility 

No.  9. 

PICA  GOTHIC  CONDENSED  HAIR-LINE 


Five  styles  of  gothic  condensed  on  pica  body. 

three  of  the  preceding  illustrations.  The  extra 
condensed  gothics  and  the  hair-line  gothics  on  the 
smaller  bodies  are  a  severe  strain  on  eyesight. 

The  merit  of  the  gothic  character  is  largely  in 
the  simplicity  and  readability  of  its  capitals,  but 
the  lower-case  sorts  furnished  with  many  styles 


Usefulness  of  Lining  Gothics         319 

are  often  found  unsatisfactory,  for  they  are  not  as 
symmetrical  as  the  capitals,  nor  are  they  always 
as  distinct.  There  are  publishers  who  forbid  the 
use  of  gothic  if  they  cannot  have  letters  in  cap- 
itals only,  Yet  those  who  do  use  capitals  only 
soon  find  an  unpleasing  monotony  in  a  succession 
of  lines  of  gothic  capitals  all  of  uniform  height. 
Nor  are  successive  lines  of  gothic  capitals  neces- 
sarily distinct  because  the  face  is  bold  and  black. 
If  the  lines  are  not  widely  leaded,  and  if  meeting 
letters  with  parallel  lines  are  not  intelligently 
spaced,  the  composition  will  be  huddled  and  ob- 
scure :  it  will  not  be  as  readable  as  lines  that  are 
composed  in  plain  roman  capitals. 

To  enable  the  compositor  to  give  a  proper 
prominence  to  special  letters  or  words,  type-foun- 
ders now  cast  three  or  more  faces  of  the  Ugefulness 
smaller  bodies  of  gothic  capitals  on  one  of  lining 
body,  and  adjust  all  the  faces  on  one  line.  g°tnic8 
This  permits  the  compositor  to  make  a  proper 
distinction  of  selected  words  and  letters  by  a 
judicious  use  of  large  and  small  capitals.  The  dif- 
ferent faces  assist  in  justification  and  in  the 
making  of  lines  of  even  length.  These  combined 
faces  are  sold  in  series,  and  are  known  as  lin- 
ing gothics.  They  are  made  of  light-face  and  of 
bold-face,  and  in  a  backslope  form,  not  only  for 
small  but  for  large  bodies.  The  bodies  preferred 
by  job  printers  are  those  'of  the  smaller  sizes. 
These  lining  gothics  have  been  found  most  use- 


320        Illustrations  of  Lining  Gothics 

ful  in  the  composition  of  panels  and  headings. 
They  are  used  also  for  the  legend  line  of  illustra- 
tions in  places  where  the  smaller  sizes  of  small 
capitals  are  rejected  as  deficient  in  readability. 


T\\\S  \_\U\NCa  £0"\V\\Cr  0V  k  BkCY,S\_0?L  SY\k?t 
\S  ?RCN\DU>  NNV\V\  VOUR  \}\ST\HCT  HCLS.    kv.\_  ov  Ttttst. 

VkCtS  kRt  ?VH  ON  HOH?NHU\.  ^OQ^.  NHB  U^t  TO  UHt  SO  ttt»a 
THtKt  SttNU.  Bt  NO  S?tC\M-  i  \iST\Y\CM\OU  0?  THt  0\^tRtUT  fkCtS. 
Four  faces. 

ESTIENNE,    BEST    KNOWN 

OTHER  ESTIENNES,  BEST 

NAME  or  STEPHENS,  is 
THE  FAMILY  NAME  OF  MANY 
EMINENTFRENCH  PRINTERS. 
HENRY,  FIRST  OFTHE  NAME, 
WAS    A    PRINTER    IN    PARIS 
FROM  1496  TO  152O. 
FRANCIS   1,  SON  OF  HENRY, 

NAME  OF  STEPHENS: 
FRANCIS  II,  SON  OF  ROBERT  I,  WAS  A 

PRINTER  AND  PUBLISHER  AT  GENEVA 
FROM  1562  TO  1582. 

PAUL,    SON    OF    HENRY    II,    PRINTED    IN 

GENEVA,  AND  DIED  THERE  IN  1593. 
JOSEPH,  SON  OF  HENRY  II,  PRINTED  IN 
GENEVA,  AND  DIED  THERE  IN  1027. 

GERVAIS,   AND   ADRIEN,  SONS   OF 
FRANCIS  ii,  PRINTED  IN   PARIS  :  THEIR 

DATES  OF  DEATH  ARE  UNKNOWN. 

ANTOINE,  SON  OF  PAUL,  PRINTED  IN 

PARIS!   HIS  DATE  OF  DEATH  IS  UNKNOWN. 

HENRY     III,    SON    OF    ANTOINE,    WAS    A 
PRINTER  IN  PARIS  IN  1646. 

ROBERT  III,  SON  OF  ROBERT  n,  WAS  A 
PRINTER  IN    PARIS  IN  1640,  AND  THE 
LAST   EMINENT   MASTER-PRINTER   OF 
THE  FAMILY. 

Four  faces. 

ROBERT      1,     SON    OF    HENRY, 

PRINTED    IN    PARIS  AND  GE- 
NEVA FROM  1526  TO  1529. 
CHARLES  I,  SON  OF  HENRY, 
PRINTEDIN  PARISFROM1536 
TO  1550. 
HENRY    II,   SON   OF  ROBERT 

1,  PRINTED  IN  GENEVA  FROM 
1554  TO  1598. 
ROBERT  II,  SON  OF  ROBERT 
1,    PRINTED    IN     PARIS,    AND 
DIED   THERE    IN    1588. 
Five  faces. 

Three  styles  of  lining  gothic  on  nonpareil  body. 


Eccentric  Styles  of  Gothic  321 

Gothic  types  are  too  simple  in  form  to  allow  of 
much  ornamentation,  but  some  attempts  have  been 
made  to  give  grace  to  their  simple  and  severe 
lines,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  folio  wing  illustrations : 


ECCENTRIC  \\\  CAPITALS 

A  GOTHIC  WITH  SMALL  CAPITALS 

A  GOTHIC  CONDENSED  AND  ORNAMENTED 
with  very  short  serifs,  after  the  latig  model 


The  eccentric  capitals  of  the  bolder  style  have 
some  value  in  lines  of  display,  but  for  ordinary 
work  their  added  quirks  are  positive  disfigure- 
ments; yet  this  face,  as  well  as  the  gothic  of 
lighter  face  with  small  capitals,  is  provided  with 
one  set  of  plain  and  another  of  eccentric  letters. 

The  gothic  condensed  and  ornamented  has  very 
short  serifs,  and  should  be  classed  as  a  variety  of 
the  so-called  latin  face.  Its  slight  degree  of  deco- 
ration is  most  noticeable  in  the  capitals.  The 
lower-case  has  little  irregularity.  It  is  a  readable 
type,  and  is  freely  used  as  a  text-letter  in  job-work. 

G-othics  of  inclined  form  are  made  by  many 
founders,  and  are  usually  named  gothic  italic. 
For  advertising  purposes  a  bold-face  like  that 

41 


322  Inclined  Gothics 

of  the  first  illustration  on  this  page  is  preferred. 
The  lighter  face  that  follows,  equally  close  as  to 
set,  moderately  condensed,  and  with  some  old-style 


THIS  GOTHIC  ITALIC  CONDENSED 
Is  of  bold-face,  is  close-set,  and  very  readable 


Gothic  italic  condensed  on  long-primer  body. 

features,  is  a  more  popular  style.  It  is  one  of  the 
most  readable  of  condensed  letters,  and  is  fre- 
quently selected  by  job  printers  for  a  text-letter. 


HENRI  DIDOT,  a  son  of  Pierre  Frangois, 
was  born  15th  July,  1765,  and  died  in  1852. 
Afthe  age  of  sixty -nine  he  cut  the  punches 
for  his  " microscopique"  type  on  the  body 
of  two  and  one-half  points  Didot,  or  about 
twenty-five  lines  to  the  American  inch. 


Gothic  italic  condensed  on  long-primer  body,  double  leaded. 


XII 


Antique  Types,  Runic,  Celtic,  and  Italian 

ANTIQUE  differs  from  roman  in  the 
boldness  of  its  lines :  stem,  serif, 
and  so-called  hair-line  are  always 
of  greater  thickness.  The  general 
effect  of  a  composition  in  this  style 
is  that  of  blackness  and  squareness.  As  first  made, 
antique  was  provided  with  lines  that  were  too  thick 
and  counters  too  narrow,  and  the  over-  The  earliest 
hang  of  its  descending  letters  was  a  bad  form  of  bold 
fault.  It  was  introduced  at  a  time  when  ^P^ta* 
all  forms  of  roman  text-letter  were  made  feeble  with 
protracted  hair-lines  and  frail  serifs  after  the  pre- 
vailing French  fashion.  The  intent  of  the  designer 
was  to  produce,  for  purposes  of  display,  a  bolder 
style  that  should  be  as  distinct  and  easily  read  as 
that  of  the  old  lapidary  characters.  For  this  reason 
it  was  called  antique  by  some  founders  andegyptian 


324  Styles  of  Antique 

AN  EARLY  ANTIQUE 
probably  cut  before  1820 

No.  1. 

CAST  BY  GEORGE  BRUCE 
as  a  substitute  for  the  bold-face 

No.  2. 

THE  DORIC  ANTIQUE 
has  features  of  r oman 

No.  3. 

THE  IONIC  ANTIQUE 
has  large  face,  open  counters 

No.  4. 

THE  LIGHT-FACE  ANTIQUE 
is  not  much  bolder  than  roman 

No.  5. 

THE  EXPANDED  ANTIQUE 
has  no  overhanging  descenders 

No.  6. 

Six  faces  of  antique  on  pica  body. 


Old-style  and  Doric  Antiques         325 

by  others.  Copies  or  imitations  of  this  over-black 
style  are  to  be  found  in  the  specimen  books  of 
many  American  founders.  For  some  years  it  was 
the  most  popular  of  display  types,  but  the  smaller 
sizes  are  now  out  of  fashion,  for  they  have  been 
supplanted  by  others  of  neater  cut.  The  over-black 
style  is  shown  on  page  324  as  specimen  No.  1. 


BOOKS  ARE   TEACHERS 

whose  instructions  are  unaccom- 
panied by  blows  or  harsh  words, 
and  who  demand  neither  food  nor 
wages.  You  visit  them,  and  they 
are  alert ;  if  you  want  them,  they 
do  not  secrete  themselves ;  nor  do 
they  ridicule  your  ignorance,  be  it 
ever  so  gross.  Richard  de  Bury. 


Old-style  antique  on  pica  body. 

Specimen  No.  2  is  of  a  style  that  is  not  yet  out 
of  fashion.  The  smaller  sizes  have  been  discarded, 
but  the  larger  sizes  are  popular. 

Specimen  No.  3,  usually  called  doric,  is  really  a 
combination  of  a  thick-faced  roman  and  antique. 
This  face,  as  well  as  the  runic  and  Celtic  of  the 
next  page,  lacks  the  square  serif  which  is  the 
characteristic  of  a  strict  antique. 


326  Celtics  and  Humes 

Specimen  No.  4  is  often  named  ionic.  It  has 
some  of  the  roundness  of  the  doric  style,  but  is  of 
a  lighter  face  and  is  not  expanded. 

Old-style  peculiarities  have  been  attached  to  the 
antique  style.  The  illustration  on  the  previous 
page  is  of  medium  boldness,  but  lighter  and  bolder 
faces  are  also  made.  Old-style  antique  is  the  pre- 
ferred letter  for  the  side  heads  or  displayed  words 
of  a  text  in  old-style  roman. 

The  lightest  and  most  open  form  of  the  antique 
style  is  usually  known  by  the  name  of  Celtic.  The 
first  illustration  below  is  of  a  face  made  in  cap- 
itals only.  Authors  and  publishers  sometimes 


A  CELTIC  OF  LIGHT  FACE 

No.  7,  on  long-primer  body. 

BROAD-FACED    CELTIC 
with  lower-case  complete 

No.  8,  on  pica  body. 

A  RUNIC  OF  CONDENSED  FORM 

No.  9,  on  pica  body. 

RUNIC  OF  SQUARE  FORM 
has  crescent-shaped  serifs 

No.  10,  on  pica  body. 


Celtics  and  Eunics. 


Other  Faces  of  Antique  327 

select  it  for  the  title-pages  of  books  in  preference 
to  the  ordinary  form  of  two-line  roman. 

Another  style  of  Celtic  is  slightly  expanded,  and 
is  provided  with  lower-case  characters. 

Runic  is  the  name  given  to  another  style  of  an- 
tique of  light-face,  of  condensed  form,  with  pointed 
serifs,  and  often  without  lower-case  characters. 

Another  style  of  runic  is  made  with  all  lower- 
case characters,  but  of  slightly  expanded  form  and 
with  the  peculiarity  of  crescent-shaped  serifs. 

Another  style,  of  bolder  face,  condensed,  and 
with  serifs  so  short  and  pointed  that  it.  might  be 
classified  among  gothics,  is  also  known  as  runic. 


THIS  IS  RUNIC  OF  BOLDER  FACE 
condensed,  with  lower-case  sorts 


The  square  form  of  the  runic  style  is  usually 
known  by  the  name  of  latin. 

Other  styles  of  antique  are  provided  by  founders, 
but  most  of  them  have  peculiarities  too  trivial  to 
require  special  illustration.  The  modern  antique, 
which  is  but  slightly  condensed,  with  a  pointed  and 
strongly  bracketed  or  club-footed  serif,  is  perhaps 
the  one  with  most  individuality.  The  latin,  on  the 
contrary,  is  slightly  expanded,  and  has  serifs  even 
shorter  and  feebler  than  those  of  roman — so  short 
that  it  might  fairly  be  called  a  variety  of  gothic. 


328  Latin  Antique 

Other  forms  of  antique,  such  as  geometric,  tus- 
can,  concave,1  etc.,  and  indeed  all  forms  with  very 
strong  mannerisms  or  of  eccentric  shape,  need  no 


BOOKS  AND   FURNITURE. 

Books  are  not  made  for  fur- 
niture, but  nothing  else  so 
beautifully  furnishes  a  house. 
Give  us  the  home  furnished 
with  books  rather  than  with 
furniture.  Both  if  you  can, 
but  books  at  any  rate. 


Latin  antique. 

illustration  here,  for  they  cannot  be  regarded  as 
plain  types.  They  are  never  selected  by  printers 
of  good  taste  for  use  in  standard  books,  and  they 
are  rarely  allowed  in  advertisements.  Antiques  of 
small  size,  of  plain  form,  and  of  not  too  bold  face, 
are  occasionally  selected  for  texts. 

Many  varieties  of  antique  condensed  are  made. 
The  earlier  and  bolder  styles,  with  flat  or  unbrack- 

1  It  may  be  necessary  to  repeat  Sometimes  the  same  face  has  a 

here  the  caution  given  on  a  pre-  different  name  given  to  it  by 

vious  page,  that  the  same  name  each  of  three  or  more  founders, 

is  not  always  given  to  the  same  While  the  names  here  given  are 

face  or  cut  of  letter.     What  one  not  universally  accepted,  they 

founder  names  Celtic,  another  are  believed  to  be  those  most 

calls  romanesque ;  one  calls  cale-  frequently  used  for  the  respec- 

donian  what  another  calls  ionic,  tive  styles. 


Gushing  Old-style  Antique  329 

eted  serifs,  and  with  kerned  descenders,  are  now 
used  only  in  the  form  of  capitals  and  figures: 


ANTIQUE  CONDENSED.  OF  OLD  FORM 
with  square  and  clean-angled  serifs 

No.  11,  on  pica  body. 

CONDENSED  ANTIQUE  OF  CAPITALS  ONLY 

No.  12,  on  pica  body. 

A  LIGHT  ANTIQUE  CONDENSED 
of  a  larger  and  more  open  face 

No.  13,  on  pica  body. 


Antique  condensed. 

The  Gushing  antique  is  a  moderately  condensed 
form  of  the  old-style  antique  character.     Unlike 


HORSES  FIRST,  BOOKS  LAST. 
I  say  first  that  we  have  despised  lit- 
erature. What  do  we,  as  a  nation, 
care  about  our  books  ?  How  much  do 
you  think  we  spend  altogether  on 
our  libraries,  public  or  private, as  com- 
pared with  what  we  spend  on  horses  ? 

Euskin. 


Gushing  old-style  antique  on  pica  body. 
42 


330          Antiques  for  Side  Headings 

other  series  of  display  letter,  the  Gushing  style  has 
been  cut  for  all  bodies,  including  the  so-called 
irregular  bodies  of  agate,  minion,  bourgeois,  and 
small-pica.  This  nicer  graduation  of  sizes  aug- 
ments its  usefulness  in  books  for  which  many 
sizes  of  text  and  of  display  letter  are  needed.1 


THE  BASKERYILLE,  OR  THE  LATIN  CONDENSED,  is 
a  most  useful  letter :  bold,  black,  condensed,  readable 


No.  14,  on  pica  body. 


A  more  useful  letter  for  side  headings  or  for 
bold  display  in  the  text  is  a  slightly  condensed 
antique  of  the  old  form,  with  flat,  unbracketed 
serifs,  of  close*  set  and  marked  compactness. 


THIS  ANTIQUE  CONDENSED  is  a  valuable  dis- 
play type,  often  used  TOE  THE  SIDE  HEADINGS 
of  catalogues  and  for  other  emphatic  words  in  a  text 

No.  15,  on  brevier  body. 


1  Display  letter  is  rarely  made  title,  or  gothic,  in  the  text  or  as 

for  the  irregular  bodies  of  agate,  side  headings.    To  do  this  the 

minion,    bourgeois,    and   small-  compositor  has  to  justify  the 

pica.     But  there  are  many  books  smaller  regular  body  in  the  text 

in  text-types  of  irregular  bodies  with  thin   leads  or  cardboard, 

for  which  it  is  necessary  to  use  It  is  always  done  at  extra  ex- 

a  display  letter,   like   antique,  pense  and  with  bad  effect. 


Clarendon  331 


PLATEN  PRINTING  MACHINE.  A  press  that 
gives  instantaneous  flat  impression  on  every  part  of 
the  sheet  by  one  movement  of  the  platen.  Many 
forms  are  in  use.  The  Adams  Printing  Machine  of 
large  size  is  designed  for  book-work.  The  Gordon, 
the  Universal,  and  the  Kidder  are  of  small  size, 
made  for  job  printing. 

No.  16,  on  brevier  body. 


Clarendon,  a  popular  variety  of  condensed  an- 
tique, was  first  made  for  the  Clarendon  Press  of 
Oxford,  to  serve  as  a  display  letter  in  a  mass  of 
text-type,  and  for  side  headings  in  dictionaries  or 
books  of  reference.  Its  clearness  in  the  smaller 
sizes  is  seriously  diminished  by  the  unnecessary 
boldness  of  its  bracketed  serif  or  turned-in  corner. 


A  BOLD-FACED  CLARENDON 
with  strong  bracketed  serifs 


No.  17,  on  pica  body. 


THIS  IS  CONDENSED  CLARENDON 
of  lighter  face  and  with  square  angles 

No.  18,  on  pica  body. 


The  lighter  and  more  condensed  variety  has  no 
descending  kerns,  but  is  not  as  popular. 


332  Extra  Condensed  Antiques 

Extra  condensed  antiques  of  thick,  medium,  and 
thin  faces  are  made  by  many  founders. 

Grecian  may  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  many 
varieties  of  the  antique  style.  In  1840  it  was  a 
popular  face,  but  it  is  now  almost  out  of  use.  Its 


ANTIQUE  EXTRA  CONDENSED,  VERY  LIGHT  FACE 
made  on  brerier,  long-primer,  pica,  and  larger  Bodies 


No.  19,  on  pica  body. 


THIS  LIGHT  liffl  OF  CAPITALS  OHLT 

No.  20,  on  great-primer  body. 

msoioiimiB  Minn  DOT  NIB 


No.  21,  on  great-primer  body. 


marked  peculiarity  is  the  angling  of  those  parts  of 
lines  that  are  usually  made  with  curves.  It  has  a 
lower-case  alphabet  only  in  the  larger  sizes. 

Antique  italics  of  the  old-fashioned  black-face 
still  have  a  place  in  some  specimen  books,  but 
they  are  out  of  style.  A  new  form  of  light-face 
with  lower-case  alphabet  is  a  pleasing  type. 


ANTIQUE  ITALIC 

one  of  the  oldest  forms 

No.  22,  on  pica  body. 


Italian  Antiques  333 

Antique  extended  bears  expansion  without  loss 
of  legibility  much  better  than  the  expanded  roman. 


-  oetse 


No.  23,  on  pica  body. 


Italian  may  be  classified  as  a  variety  of  antique. 
It  is  a  fat-faced  roman  with  transposed  stem  and 
hair-line.  "  To  be  hated,  it  needs  but  to  be  seen." 1 


OLE  ITALI1.H  PACE 

No.  24,  on  pica  body. 

MODEM  ITALIAN  CONDENSED 
has  nine  sizes,  nonpareil  to  canon 


No.  25,  on  pica  body. 


ITALIAN  -ANTIQUE 
provided  with  lower-case 


No.  26,  on  pica  body. 


1  "Oh!  sacred  shades  of  Moxon  And  those  who  follow,  as  many 
and  Van  Dijke,  of  Baskerville  years  hence  as  you  have  pre- 
andBodoni!  what  would  ye  have  ceded  us,  to  what  age  or  beings 
said  of  the  typographic  monstros-  will  they  ascribe  the  marks  here 
ities  here  exhibited,  which  Fash-  exhibited  as  a  specimen  ?  "  Han- 
ion  in  our  age  has  produced?  sard,  "  Typographia,"  p.  618. 


334          Antique  as  a  Text  for  Books 

Italian  condensed  is  a  more  readable  letter,  for 
the  so-called  hair-lines  have  ample  thickness.  The 
thickening  of  the  face  is  given  mainly  to  the  top 
and  the  bottom  lines. 

Italian  antique  is  of  similar  design,  but  it  is 
slightly  expanded  and  of  bolder  face. 

The  antique  style  of  type  is  frequently  used  in 
place  of  roman  by  job  printers,  who  find  it  more 
small  types  G^GG^yQ  ^ or  display  work,  and  espe- 
oftenneeda  cially  for  single  lines  that  are  printed  in 
bolder  face  coiore^  jn]^  The  weakness  of  our  pres- 
ent fashions  of  roman  is  most  painfully  illustrated 
when  roman  types  are  printed  in  a  scarlet  red 
or  an  ultramarine  blue.  The  modern  method 
of  printing  on  dry  polished  paper,  too  often  with 
weak  impression  and  deficient  ink,  makes  the  print 
hard  to  read,  even  when  the  ink  selected  is  black. 


DR.  JAVAL  ON  THE  EVOLUTIpN  OF  TYPpGRAPHY.  There  are 
five  important  methods  of  increasing  the  quantity  of  matter  contained 
in  a  page  of  prescribed  size,  viz. :  1,  to  take  out  the  leads  ;  2,  to  give 
a  closer  set  to  each  letter;  3,  to  compress  or  condense  each  letter  so 
that  more  letters  will  come  in  one  line ;  4,  to  put  the  letters  on  a  smaller 
body;  5,  to  cut  down  the  height  of  long  letters  and  put  all  on  a 
smaller  body.  .  .  .  The  form  of  type  shown  in  this  paragraph  seems 
to  approach  the  conditions  we  have  named  [readability  with  com- 
pactness] more  closely  than  any  other  type  in  regular  use  by  the  print-  . 
ing  trade.  When  types  shall  be  made  to  conform  still  more  closely  to 
these  conditions  they  will  be  well  fitted  for  readable  impressions. 

No.  27,  on  corps  5. 


French  publishers  and  authors  who  have  satis- 
factorily made  use  of  Celtics  and  runics  for  title- 
pages  in  red  ink  have  been  gradually  led  to  try 
the  effect  of  a  light-faced  antique  for  the  text 


Antique  preferred  to  Roman          335 

of  small  pages,  which  are  always  difficult  to  read 
when  printed  upon  dry  calendered  paper  in  a  ro- 
man  letter  of  six  points  or  smaller.  The  illus- 
tration on  the  preceding  page  is  one  of  a  series 
which  is  commended  by  Dr.  Javal  as  a  most  read- 
able cut  of  small  text-type.  It  has  been  used  with 
good  results  by  French  publishers  for  little  books 
of  poems  in  editions  de  luxe,  for  this  corps  5  is 
decidedly  more  readable  than  ordinary  roman 
on  corps  7.  Although  an  improvement,  the  new 
face  is  not  beyond  criticism :  the  wide  set  given 
to  each  character  does  not  make  the  composition 
more  readable.  This  style  is  made  by  the  Turlot 
Foundry  on  many  larger  bodies.  The  monotone 
shown  on  a  previous  page  is  not  quite  as  distinct, 
but  its  lower-case  letters  are  more  pleasing  to 
American  readers. „ 


XIII 


The  Classes  and  Prices  of  Printing-types 

^LL  type-founders  agree  upon  the  pro- 
priety of  different  prices  for  the 
leading  classes  of  roman,  display, 
and  ornamental.^  The  line  of  sepa- 
ration is  not  fully  indicated  by  their 
titles.  In  the  class  of  roman  are  included  italic 
and  the  fractur  of  the  Germans;  in  the  class  of 
The  three  plain  display  are  put  antique,  gothic, 
classes  of  celtic,  title,  and  every  style  of  plain 
face  made  for  display;  in  the  class  of 
ornamental  are  put  decorated  letters,  black-letter 
and  ornamented  text,  and  all  the  simpler  styles 
of  script  and  secretary.  There  are  other  varieties 
of  type  not  included  in  these  classes:  Greek, 
Hebrew,  and  all  Orientals ;  music,  accents,  signs, 
superior  and  inferior  references ;  piece  fractions, 
space  rules,  and  all  strange  types  that  require  for 


Low  Prices  of  Printing-types         337 

the  quantities  made,  a  disproportionate  expendi- 
ture for  punches  and  matrices,  are  necessarily 
sold  at  special  and  irregular  rates. 

The  rates  made  for  the  different  sizes  represent 
differences  in  the  value  of  labor  more  than  of 
metal.  To  make  a  pound  of  type  re-  Tjaboroo8te 
quires  only  two  or  three  letters  of  the  more  than 
larger,  but  sometimes  two  or  three  metal 
thousand  of  the  smaller  sizes.  As  each  type  has 
to  be  separately  cast  and  finished,  the  value  of 
the  labor  put  on  the  smaller  type  is  greater.  The 
metal  in  small  type  is  harder  and  costs  more  than 
that  in  large  type,  but  its  value  in  any  size  is 
always  less  than  that  of  labor.  Old  type,  when 
bartered  for  new,  is  sometimes  allowed  for  at  a 
special  rate ;  when  sold  for  cash,  the  price  allowed 
never  exceeds  that  of  waste  lead,  and  is  often  less. 
New  type-metal,  as  sold  in  pigs  by  the  smelter, 
varies  with  the  market  prices  of  its  constituents, 
but  is  always  worth  more  than  the  metal  of  old 
type,  which  always  has  much  dross. 

Fluctuations  in  the  cost  of  metal  often  make 
corresponding  changes  in  the  prices  of  types,  but 
prices  have  been  more  affected  by  improvements 
in  machinery,  which  invariably  reduce  the  rates. 
When  types  were  made  by  hand,  as  in  the  first 
quarter  of  this  century,  they  were  of  high  price ; 
since  they  have  been  made  entirely  by  machine 
they  are  furnished  at  lower  rates  than  were  ever 
known  before. 

43 


338 


Prices  of  American  Types 


Price  List  of  the  American  Type  Founders  Co.1 


Bodies. 

Roman 
and 
italic. 

Plain 
display. 

Orna- 
mental 
display. 

Diamond,  or  4£-point,  per  Ib. 

$1.20 

Pearl,  or  5-point     

.90 

Agate,  or  5  \  -point     .... 

.52 

.90 

$2.40 

Nonpareil,  or  6-point    .    .    . 

.45 

.76 

2.00 

Minion,  or  7-point      .... 

.40 

.66 

1.80 

Brevier,  or  8-point     .... 

.37 

.62 

1.60 

Bourgeois,  or  9-point    .    .    . 

.34 

.56 

1.44 

Long-primer,  or  10-point 

.32 

.52 

1.30 

Small-pica,  or  11-point     .    . 

.31 

.48 

1.20 

Pica,  or  12-point    

.30 

.46 

1.16 

English,  or  14-point  .... 

.30 

.44 

1.12 

Columbian,  or  16-point     '.    . 

.30 

.42 

1.06 

Great-primer,  or  18-point    . 

.30 

.60 

1.00 

Paragon,  or  20-point     .    .    . 

.30 

.60 

.94 

Double  small-pica,  or22-point 

.30 

.56 

.90 

Double  pica,  or  24-point  .    . 

.30 

.56 

.90 

Double  english,  or  28-point 

.30 

.56 

.86 

Double  Columbian,  32-point 

.30 

.56 

.86 

Double  great-primer,  36-point 

.30 

.56 

.82 

Double  paragon,  or  40-point 

.30 

.54 

.78 

Meridian,  or  44-point    .    .    . 

.30 

.54 

.78 

Canon,  or  48-point     .... 

.30 

.54 

.72 

Five-line  pica,  or  60-point   . 

.30 

.52 

.64 

i  Adopted  March,  1893. 


Cost  of  Punches  and  Matrices        339 

These  prices  are  subject  to  discount,  which,  will 
vary  with  fluctuations  in  the  price  of  labor  and 
metals.  The  discount  in  April.  1900.  is 

i        £  *  •    -U  4.  Discounts 

ten  per  cent,  on  regular  fonts  of  job  type, 

body  type,  quadrats,  borders,  and  ornaments  ;  for 

prompt  payment,  five  per  cent.  more. 

The  table  rates  for  roman  and  italic  are  for 
fonts  that  weigh  not  less  than  fifty  pounds. 

Sorts,  or  additions  to  a  font,  when  ordered  in 
reasonable  quantities,  are  usually  furnished  by 
American  founders  at  the  same  rate  as  the  origi- 
nal font.  When  ordered  in  small  quantities  the 
rate  may  be  higher.  Single  lines  or  letters  are 
always  at  a  higher  rate. 

Although  roman  and  italic  are  sold  at  the  low- 
est rates,  the  cost  of  their  punches  and  matrices 
is  greater  than  that  of  the  punches  for  cost  of 
plain  display  or  ornamental.  A  full  font  punches 
of  roman  and  italic,  including  accents  and  signs, 
requires  the  cutting  of  about  two  hundred  and 
forty  punches,  and  the  making  of  as  many  mat- 
rices, at  a  cost  of  about  $1200.  Ornamental  types 
may  require  more  labor  for  each  punch,  but  the 
total  number  of  punches  in  a  font  of  this  class  is 
always  small,  rarely  exceeding  seventy-five  char- 
acters. The  punches  for  roman  type  are  or  should 
be  cut  on  steel ;  those  made  for  the  larger  types 
are  more  cheaply  cut  on  type-metal,  from  which 
electrotype  matrices  are  made.  Steel  punches  for 
roman  and  italic  will  cost  more  in  the  beginning, 


340  English  Types 

but  this  expense,  large  as  it  may  seem,  becomes  a 
small  fraction  of  the  entire  cost  when  the  punches 
serve  for  the  casting  of  many  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands of  pounds. 

Plain  display  types  are  rarely  sold  in  large 
quantities ;  fonts  of  ten  and  twenty  pounds  are 
sizes  of  in  greatest  request.  Some  fonts  on  small 
fonts  bodies  do  not  weigh  two  pounds.  Limited 
sales,  and  the  relatively  greater  labor  that  has  to 
be  given  to  the  casting,  division,  preparation,  and 
packing  of  small  fonts,  are  the  reasons  given  for 
their  greater  cost.  Ornamental  types,  required 
chiefly  for  occasional  lines  of  display,  and  always 
sold  in  small  fonts,  have  but  a  brief  popularity. 
As  they  cost  more  to  produce,  and  soon  go  out  of 
fashion,  the  rate  is  necessarily  high. 

The  rates  for  roman  and  italic  in  the  price-list 
of  English  printing  types  are  for  fonts  of  one 
English  hundred  and  twenty  pounds  and  more, 
methods  Small  fonts  are  at  higher  rates.  Sorts 
ordered  within  three  months  from  the  time  of  the 
delivery  of  the  original  font  are  at  regular  ^ates  $ 
if  ordered  afterward  at  a  special  higher  rate. 
Quadrats  are  the  only  exception ;  when  ordered 
as  sorts  they  are  furnished  at  lower  prices  than 
letters.  A  discount  of  ten  per  cent,  from  these 
rates  is  often  given  for  cash  payment. 

The  bodies  of  English  types  differ  from  those  of 
American  foundries  (see  the  table  on  page  158  of 
this  work).  In  height  English  types  differ  map- 


Prices  of  English  Types  341 

Price  List  of  English  and  Scotch  Type-founders.1 


Bodies. 

Roman 
and 
italic. 

Plain 
display. 

Orna- 
mental 
display. 

Diamond,  per  Ib.    . 
Pearl             

s.     d. 

6    0 
3    6 

s.     d. 
8      0 

5    0 

s.     d. 
8      6 

8    0 

Ruby 

2    8 

4    6 

7    6 

Nonpareil     

2    4 

3    3 

6     6 

Emerald    

2    0 

3    0 

6    4 

Minion      

1    7 

2    4 

6    0 

Brevier 

1    6 

2    2 

5     9 

Bourgeois 

1     5 

2    0 

5    6 

Long-primer    

1    3 

1  10 

5    0 

Small-pica    

1    2 

1    8 

4    9 

Pica 

1     1 

1     6 

4    0 

English     

1    0 

1    4 

3     9 

Great-primer  

1     0 

1    2 

3    0 

Parasron  . 

g 

Two-line  pica 

1     0 

. 
1     2 

3    0 

Two-line  english    . 
Two-line  great-primer  . 
Four-line  pica     .... 
Canon    

1    0 
1    0 

11 

11 

1     1 
1     1 
1    0 
1    0 

2    0 
2    0 
2    0 
2    0 

Five-line  pica  
Six-line  pica    
Seven-line  pica   .... 

11 

9 
9 

1    0 
9 
9 

2    0 
2    0 
2    0 

i  From  the  specimen  books  of     Reed's  Sons  of  London,  and  Mil- 
H.  W.  Caslon  &  Co.  and  Sir  Chas.      ler  &  Richard  of  Edinburgh. 


342 


Prices  of  French  Types 


preciably  from  the  American ;  they  can  be  used 
together  in  the  same  line.  The  rates  for  small 
bodies  and  ornamental  letter  are  relatively  higher 
in  England  than  in  America. 

The  rates  of  French  and  German  types  are  by 
the  kilogram,  which  is  about  two  and  one-fifth 
(2.2055)  American  pounds.  French  and  German 

Price  List  of  French  Types.1 


Bodies. 

Ordinary 
romans. 

Plain  display. 

Scripts  and 
ornamentals. 

francs. 

francs. 

francs. 

Corps  6,   kilo. 

8.00 

12.00 

Corps  7      .    . 

6.00 

11.00 

Corps  8      .    . 

5.50 

10.00 

30.00 

Corps  9     .    . 

5.00 

9.00 

.    .    .  . 

Corps  10    .    . 

4.50 

8.00 

18.00 

Corps  11    .    . 

4.25 

7.50 

16.00 

Corps  12    .    . 

4.00 

7.25 

14.00 

Corps  14    .    . 

3.75 

7.00 

13.50 

Corps  16    .    . 

3.50 

7.00 

13.00 

Corps  18    .    . 

3.00 

6.75 

12.00 

Corps  20    .    . 

3.00 

6.50 

11.00 

Corps  24    .    . 

2.90 

6.00 

10.00 

Corps  28    .    . 

2.90 

6.00 

9.50 

Corps  36    .    . 

2.80 

5.50 

9.00 

Corps  40    .    . 

2.80 

5.00 

8.00 

Corps  48    .    . 

2.70 

5.00 

8.00 

t  Compiled  from  the  specimen  book  of  the  Turlot  Foundry,  Paris. 


Prices  of  German  Types 


343 


types  are  of  variable  height,  but  are  always  higher 
than  the  American  or  English.  Russian  types  are 
more  than  one  inch  high.  These  higher  types 
cannot  be  used  in  the  same  form  with  American 
types  until  the  bodies  have  been  cut  down  at 
their  feet,  but  this  cutting  down  is  rarely  done 
with  proper  accuracy.  Impressions  from  cut-down 
types  of  foreign  manufacture  always  show  uneven 
height  and  usually  make  unsatisfactory  plates. 

Price  List  of  German  Types.1 


Bodies. 

Roman  and 
fractur. 

Plain 
display. 

Scripts  and 
ornamentals. 

marks. 

marks. 

marks. 

Perl,  per  kilo. 
Nonpareille    . 
Colonel    .    .    . 

6.35 

4.80 
4.08 

8.20 

Petit    .... 

3.18 

6.20 

14.00 

Bourgeois  .    . 
Corpus    .    .    . 
Cicero  .... 

2.88 
2.58 
2.40 

6.00 
6.00 
6.00 

13.00 
13.00 

Mittel  .... 

3.00 

5.40 

12.00 

Tertia  .... 

2.90 

5.20 

11.00 

Text     .... 

2.90 

4.80 

10.00 

Doppelmittel 
Kanon  I  ... 

2.90 
2.90 

4.60 
4.20 

9.00 
8.00 

Kanon  II    .    . 

2.90 

4.00 

8.00 

1  Compiled  from   the    price- 
lists  of  Bauer  &  Co.  of  Stutt- 


gart, and  Julius  Klinkhardt  of 
Leipsic. 


344  Objections  to  Foreign  Types 

The  French  franc  may  be  rated  at  19.3  cents. 
The  German  mark  may  be  rated  at  23.8  cents. 

The  duty  levied  by  the  United  States  Custom 
House  on  all  importations  of  type  is  twenty-five 
customs  Per  cent-  on  the  cost  as  stated  in  the  in- 
duties  voice.  When  the  bill  amounts  to  one 
m  1899  hundred  dollars  or  more,  the  exporter  is 
required  to  make  affidavit  before  a  United  States 
consul  as  to  its  correctness.  The  prices  of  Euro- 
pean types  do  not  tempt  American  buyers  to  pur- 
chase. Importations  of  French  and  German  types 
are  practically  prohibited  by  the  duty  as  well  as 
by  the  delay  and  cost  of  transportation,  and  the 
damage  inflicted  on  type  by  cutting  down  the 
bodies  to  the  American  height, 


XIV 


Large  Types    Wood  Types    The  Pantograph 
Benton's  Punch-cutting  Machine 

ARGE  types  were  sparingly  used  in 
old  times :  they  were  difficult  to  cast, 
and  they  could  not  be  effectively 
printed  when  cast,  for  the  hand-press 
then  in  use  could  not  produce  the 
power  needed  for  full  impression.  The  making  of 
large  types  had  to  wait  for  the  general  adoption  of 
iron  hand-presses  and  cylinder  printing-machines. 
To  make  the  larger  types  required,  type-found- 
ers revived  the  disused  process  of  casting  in  sand- 
moulds.  Types  made  by  this  process  were  casting- 
heavy,  expensive,  and  liable  to  injury.  It  in  sand 
was  difficult  to  keep  the  metal  sufficiently  fluid : 
to  prevent  unequal  cooling  the  caster  often  had  to 
put  a  red-hot  iron  in  the  core.  The  unequal  cool- 
ing of  the  metal  often  made  the  face  of  the  type 

345 


346        How  Large  Types  were  Made 

concave.  The  greatest  objection  to  them  was  their 
cost.  A  ten-line  antique  M  would  weigh  a  pound, 
and  the  cost  of  the  metal  and  labor  in  a  type  of 
this  size,  at  rates  then  prevailing,  was  forty  cents. 
The  price  was  practically  prohibitory. 

To  save  metal,  which  increased  the  cost,  a  new 
method  of  casting  large  types  upon  high  arches 
Casting  was  adopted.  This  economy  was  pushed 
on  arches  too  far ;  types  with  slender  arches  often 
broke  in  locking-up.  The  art  of  stereotyping  was 
then  applied.  The  faces  were  cast  in  plates,  and 
these  plates  were  mounted,  sometimes  on  metal 
and  sometimes  on  wood  bodies,  but  stereotyping 
did  not  prove  as  economical  as  had  been  expected. 
The  value  of  the  metal  used  was  less ;  that  of  the 
labor  more.  After  continued  failure  the  manu- 
facturers of  large  types  abandoned  metal  for  the 
larger  sizes. 

Not  many  woods  are  suitable.  "Wood  for  types 
should  be  free  from  knots  or  cracks,  and  should 
The  wood  have  a  compact  grain  or  fiber,  yet  be 
preferred  easy  to  cut.  Mahogany  is  preferred  for 
its  hardness,  but  it  is  too  porous  and  has  to  be 
"filled."  Maple,  pear,  apple,  and  cherry  are  the 
woods  that  combine  the  most  good  qualities.  For 
types  twelve  or  more  inches  tall,  pine  in  the  form 
of  boards,  with  the  fiber  of  the  wood  parallel  with 
the  surface  plane  of  the  impression,  is  selected  for 
its  cheapness  and  its  easy- working  qualities,  but 
it  is  soft  and  liable  to  warp. 


Early  Methods  of  Cutting  Wood      347 

The  wood  types  first  made  in  the  United  States 
were  drawn  by  the  printers  who  needed  them 
and  afterward  cut  by  carpenters.  Darius  proce8Se8 
Wells,  a  printer  of  New  York  city,  who  tried  by 
had  a  local  reputation  for  good  drawing  D-Wel 
of  letters,  abandoned  printing  in  1827,  and  gave 
exclusive  attention  to  the  manufacture  of  wood 
type.  At  that  time  it  was  the  usual  practice  to 
draw  and  cut  on  the  flat  board.  Wells  was  the 
first  to  follow  the  practice  of  engravers  on  wood, 
by  using  blocks  that  had  been  cut  in  sections 
across  the  fibers.  The  work  of  preparing  blocks 
was  done  entirely  by  hand ;  the  tools  most  used 
were  the  ordinary  saw  and  slide-plane.  Model 
letters  were  drawn  for  all  the  characters  on  card- 
board, which  was  then  neatly  cut  to  serve  for  pat- 
terns. When  the  outline  of  the  patterns  had  been 
traced  by  pencil  on  the  surface  of  the  block,  a 
graver  was  used  to  cut  a  wide  furrow  near  the 
penciled  line.  This  done,  the  counters  and  shoul- 
ders were  cut  away  by  chisels  and  gouges.  Fin- 
ishing was  done  with  gravers  and  fine  files. 

To  abridge  the  tedious  labor  of  cutting  away 
the  counters  and  shoulders  Wells  made  use  of  a 
simple  tool  which  he  called  the  "  router.77  It  was 
a  flat-faced  and  half-round  steel  bit,  made  to 
rotate  by  steam  power  at  high  speed.  The  bit, 
suspended  vertically  over  the  wood  to  be  cut,  had 
attachments  for  raising  or  depressing  it  at  will. 
The  block  of  wood  to  be  made  into  a  type  was 


348  Leavenworth's  Pantograph 

firmly  fastened  under  the  router;  then  the  opera- 
tor, after  applying  the  power,  moved  the  cutter 
spindle  until  every  part  of  the  counter  and  shoul- 
der was  thoroughly  removed. 

Other  machinery  was  gradually  introduced. 
Sheet-brass  patterns  were  used  instead  of  cards. 
Then  came  cast-brass  patterns,  with  elevated  edges 
which,  when  pressed  in  the  wood,  both  marked 
and  engraved  the  outlines  of  each  type.  Improved 
circular  saws  and  accurately  adjusted  planing- 
tools  soon  followed.  More  care  was  also  given  to 
the  selection  and  seasoning  of  the  wood.  Made 
by  these  tools,  wood  types  were  preferred  to  metal 
types,  not  merely  because  they  were  cheaper  but 
for  their  lightness  and  convenience. 

In  1834  William  Leaven  worth  of  Allen  town, 
New  Jersey,  adapted  the  pantograph  to  the  man- 
utility  of  ufacture  of  wood  type.  This  machine 
pantograph  made  unnecessary  all  hand-drawings  of 
the  letter  on  the  wood.  From  one  set  of  models 
attached  to  the  pantograph  an  unskilled  work- 
man could  cut  on  untraced  wood  various  sizes 
from  two-line  pica  upward,  and  every  size  would 
be  a  faithful  reproduction  of  the  model.  The 
pantograph  is  a  strongly  jointed  and  adjusta- 
ble open  framework  of  wrought  iron'  and  steel, 
rhomboidal  as  to  shape.  When  put  to  work,  it 
is  suspended  about  eight  inches  over  a  flat  metal 
table.  It  has  five  short  projections  extending 
toward  this  table;  some  of  them  are  the  extreme 


Description  of  Pantograph  349 

angles  of  the  framework.  Two  of  these  four  pro- 
jections at  opposite  extremities  reach  the  table, 
and  serve  as  rests  to  steady  the  action  of  the  ma- 
chine. One  of  the  four  projections  is  a  guiding- 
rod,  or  feeler,  which  follows  the  outline  of  the 


The  pantograph  for  wood  type. 

pattern  letter  beneath  it  (which  is  practically  an 
enlarged  type  in  high  relief),  and  accurately  com- 
municates every  deviation  of  motion  in  a  reduced 
proportion  to  the  router.  The  fifth  projection  is 
near  the  center  of  the  framework,  and  carries  the 
router,  which  is  suspended  over  the  block  to  be 
cut,  and  can  be  raised  or  lowered  at  will.  The 
router,  driven  by  steam,  rotates  at  unusual  speed : 
fourteen  thousand  revolutions  a  minute  is  a  com- 
mon rate.  Each  movement  of  the  operator's  hand 


350       Benton  Punch-cutting  Machine 

in  guiding  the  index  around  the  pattern  letter  is 
followed  by  a  corresponding  exactness  of  move- 
ment in  the  router  that  cuts  the  block.  The  type 
is  often  made  in  as  short  a  time  as  one  could 
trace  the  outlines  of  the  pattern  by  pencil,  and  it 
is  cut  more  accurately  than  a  type  made  by  hand. 
When  it  leaves  the  pantograph  it  is  nearly  finished; 
an  exacter  angling  of  the  corners  by  the  graver  is 
nearly  all  the  additional  work  required.  The  pan- 
tograph is  also  successfully  applied  to  the  making 
of  large  borders  and  ornaments.  Letters  and  bor- 
ders as  small  as  two-line  pica  can  be  made  on 
wood,  but  these  smaller  bodies  can  claim  no  su- 
periority over  corresponding  sizes  in  metal,  either 
in  cheapness  or  convenience'. 

Some  features   of  the  pantograph  have  been 
successfully  incorporated  in  a  machine  for  the 

cutting  of  punches,  invented  by  L.  B. 
used  on  Benton  of  Milwaukee.  The  process  of 
the  Benton  making  the  letters  that  serve  for  the 

models  on  the  Benton  machine  begins 
wiih  a  pencil  sketch  on  paper  of  letters  twelve 
inches  high.  The  drawing  is  reproduced  by  the 
pantograph,  but  it  reappears  in  the  form  of  a 
model  letter,  three  inches  high,  with  raised  out- 
lines on  a  metal  plate  that  has  been  covered  with 
wax.  From  this  wax  reproduction  an  electrotype 
is  taken,  which  serves  as  a  model  for  the  opera- 
tor. By  a  proper  adjustment  of  the  leverage  (the 
mechanism  for  which  is  too  small  to  be  repre- 


The  Benton  punch-cutting  machine. 
Height,  5  feet  4  inches;  floor  space,  22  x  28  inches. 


351 


352       Benton  Punch-cutting  Machine 

sented  in  the  illustration),  the  model  letter  can  be 
made  to  serve  for  the  cutting  of  any  body  from 
two-point  to  seventy-two  point.1 

In  this  machine  the  electro  typed  letter  that  is 
accepted  as  the  model  of  the  punch  to  be  cut  is 
Accuracy  of  firmly  fixed  on  the  lower  platform  over 
the  machine  which  the  movable  index  or  guide  is 
vertically  suspended.  The  four  rods  attached  to 
the  head-plate  of  this  index  are  connected  with 
gimbals  that  give  to  the  guide  the  greatest  flexi- 
bility with  the  greatest  accuracy  of  movement. 
The  punch  to  be  cut  (also  too  small  to  be  shown 
in  the  drawing)  is  placed  on  the  small  table  near 
the  head  of  the  connecting  rods.  The  cutting 
tools  are  exceedingly  minute,  but  they  are  made 
with  the  nicest  accuracy,  and  are  rotated  at  high 
speed  by  steam  power. 

The  direction  given  to  the  index  at  the  will  of 
the  operator  around  the  outlines  and  interior  lines 
of  the  model  letter  is  faithfully  repeated  by  the 
cutting  tools  on  the  punch.  The  punches  pro- 
duced by  the  machine  are  finished  in  all  points 
and  require  no  supplemental  hand- work.  The  cut- 
ting is  necessarily  more  accurate  than  that  done 
entirely  by  hand;  the  counters  are  deeper,  the 
bevels  truer,  and  always  of  uniform  slope.  When 

1  The  facsimile  of  a  signature,  of  a  powerful  magnifying  glass, 

consisting  of  two  initials  and  six  The  total  length  of  the  signature 

lower-case  letters,  was  cut  in  a  did  not  exceed  the  thickness  of 

script  so  small  that  it  could  not  two  sheets  of  writing  paper. — 

be  distinguished  without  the  aid  ' '  Inland  Printer,"  vol.  xii,  p.  238. 


Its  Nice  Adjustments  353 

care  has  been  taken  to  trim  the  model  letters  to 
correct  line  and  position,  the  punch  will  also  be 
cut  in  corresponding  line  and  position. 

The  machines  for  shaping  and  sharpening  the 
cutting  tools,  also  invented  by  Mr.  Benton,  will 
produce  tools  of  any  angle.  They  are  Accuracy  of 
so  constructed  that  each  tool  is  sharp-  the  cutters 
ened  with  its  point  in  the  center  of  its  rotation 
without  removal  from  its  original  position. 

The  inventor  claims,  and  the  claim  is  not  dis- 
puted, that  punches  completed  by  this  machine 
produce  matrices  that  are  more  readily  fitted  up 
and  justified  than  those  cut  by  hand.  Models  for 
accents,  fractions,  and  borders  can  be  made  in  sec- 
tions, and  accurately  conjoined  in  proper  position 
before  the  cutting  of  the  punch.  The  punches  for 
accents  are  always  truly  flat  on  the  face,  and  all 
kinds  of  kerns  can  be  provided  with  proper  sup- 
ports. The  success  of  the  Linotype  (type-making 
and  type-composing)  machine  is  largely  due  to  the 
accuracy  of  the  matrices  made  from  Benton  ma- 
chine punches.  As  the  counters  are  deeper  and 
the  bevels  truer,  the  types  do  not  show  distortion 
when  they  have  been  flattened  by  wear. 

Some  type-setting  machines  recently  invented 
owe  their  utility  to  new  processes  for  making 
types.  In  many  of  them  the  type-set-  Automatic 
ting  apparatus  is  so  closely  connected  type-casters 
with  that  of  type-making  as  to  make  it  impracti- 
cable to  give  a  clear  description  of  one  without 

44 


354          The  Mergenthaler  Machine 

the  other.    A  sketch  of  the  type-making  apparatus 
is  all  that  can  be  given  here. 

Mechanical  type-setting  was  long  delayed  and 
often  entirely  defeated  by  difficulties  encountered 
Avoids  the  *n  ^e  distribution  and  reuse  of  the 
distribution  composed  types.  Most  inventors  found 
of  the  types  y.  expedient  to  invent  a  special  machine 
for  distribution  as  a  necessary  adjunct  to  the  type- 
setter. In  the  Mergenthaler  Linotype  machine 
this  difficulty  was  overcome  by  the  construction 
of  an  apparatus  which  cast  composed  types  to- 
gether in  the  form  of  solid  lines,  and  made  distri- 
bution as  impossible  as  it  was  unnecessary;  for 
the  new  method  promised  to  make  it  cheaper  to 
use  new  types  than  to  distribute  and  reuse  old 
types.  This  machine,  which  assembles,  spaces, 
justifies,  and  casts  the  letters  needed  in  compo- 
sition, is  too  complex  for  a  detailed  description  in 
a  treatise  on  types  only,  and  not  on  their  compo- 
sition. The  following  outline  of  the  type-making 
apparatus  is  that  of  the  manufacturers. 

The  Mergenthaler  Linotype  machine  has  for  its  fun- 
damental element  about  fifteen  hundred  brass  matrices, 
which  respond  to  the  operator's  touch  upon  the  key- 
board, and  thus  create  the  type-matter  ready  for  use. 
These  matrices  consist  of  small,  flat  plates,  having  in 
one  edge  a  female  letter,  and  in  the  upper  end  a  series 
of  teeth,  for  distributing  purposes.  There  are  in  the 
machine  a  number  of  matrices  for  each  letter,  also  for 
special  characters,  and  for  spaces  and  quads  of  definite 


The  Mergenthaler  Machine          355 

thicknesses.  Used  in  connection  with  the  matrices  are 
elongated  wedge-shaped  spaces,  which  are  inserted  be- 
tween the  words. 

The  machine  casts  metal  slugs,  type-high,  having 
upon  their  upper  edge  type-characters  to  print  a  line. 
These  slugs  present  the  appearance  of  composed  lines 
of  type,  and  for  this  reason  are  called  "Linotypes." 
The  machine  is  so  constructed  that  on  manipulating  the 
keyboard  it  will  select  matrices  in  the  order  in  which 
they  are  to  appear  in  print,  and  assemble  them  in  a 
line  with  the  wedge-shaped  spaces. 

This  line  of  female  type  is  adapted  to  produce  raised 
type  upon  a  slug,  after  which  they  are  returned  to  the 
magazine  to  be  again  composed  in  new  relations  for 
succeeding  lines.  The  magazine  is  in  an  inclined  posi- 
tion, and  contains  channels  in  which  the  matrices  for 
any  face  may  be  stored,  and  through  which  they  pass. 
Each  channel  is  connected  with  a  finger  key,  repre- 
senting the  character  it  contains.  When  a  key  is  de- 
pressed, a  matrix,  or  a  space,  falls  upon  an  inclined 
travelling  belt  which  carries  it  into  the  assembler.  This 
is  continued  until  the  assembler  contains  sufficient 
characters  to  represent  one  line  of  print.  It  is  then 
transferred  to  a  mould  extending  through  the  mould 
wheel.  The  mould  is  of  the  exact  size  of  the  slug  re- 
quired. The  assembled  matrix  line  closes  the  front  of 
the  mould,  and  the  faces  of  the  matrices  are  brought  in 
line  with  it.  At  this  point  the  wedge-shaped  spaces  are 
pushed  further  through  the  line,  and  exact  spacing  and 
justification  are  secured.  In  the  rear  of  the  mould  is  a 
melting-pot,  heated  by  gas  or  gasoline,  containing 
molten  metal.  The  pot  has  a  mouthpiece  arranged  to 
close  the  rear  of  the  mould,  and  contains  a  pump.  While 


356  The  Mergenthaler  Machine 

the  matrix  line  is  in  position  the  pump  forces  the  metal 
into  the  mould,  against  and  into  the  female  characters 
of  the  matrix  line.  The  metal  instantly  solidifies,  re- 
gardless of  the  length  or  thickness  of  the  slug.  The 
mould  wheel  then  makes  a  partial  revolution,  bringing 
the  mould  in  front  of  an  ejector  blade,  which  pushes 
the  slug  out  of  the  mould  into  a  receiving  galley,  ready 
for  the  proof -press. 

To  insure  absolute  accuracy  in  the  height  and  thick- 
ness of  the  slugs  knives  are  arranged  to  act  upon  them 
during  their  course  to  the  galley.  The  line  of  matrices 
is  then  lifted  from  the  mould  to  the  distributor  bar  at 
the  top  of  the  machine,  the  wedge-shaped  spaces  being 
left  behind  and  shifted  into  the  receptacle  from  which 
they  were  discharged. 

The  ribs  of  the  distributor  bar  are  cut  away  at  dif- 
ferent points,  thus  making  a  special  arrangement  over 
the  mouth  of  each  channel.  The  matrices  are  pushed 
upon  the  bar  at  its  end  and  made  to  move  slowly  along 
until  each  one  arrives  at  a  point  where  its  teeth  bear 
such  relation  to  the  ribs  that  it  disengages  and  falls 
into  its  proper  channel,  there  to  remain  until  all  the 
preceding  matrices,  beat-ing  the  same  character,  have 
performed  the  same  duty,  when  it  again  makes  the 
circuit. 

This  circulation  permits  the  operations  of  composing 
one  line,  casting  a  second,  and  distributing  a  third  to 
be  carried  on  concurrently,  and  enables  the  machine 
to  run  at  a  speed  exceeding  that  at  which  any  operator 
can  finger  the  keys.  It  also  makes  it  unnecessary  to 
have  more  than  three  or  four  matrices  of  any  special 
sort  that  may  be  required,  such  as  accents  and  other- 
arbitrary  characters. 


Other  Type-making  Machines         357 

The  Lanston  Monotype  is  a  machine  that  makes 
and  sets  single  types.  To  use  it,  copy  must  be  pre- 
viously prepared  on  a  distinct  machine,  The  Lanst0n 
not  unlike  a  type- writer  in  size  and  ap-  type-caster 
pearance,  which  punches  holes,  as  directed  by  the 
operator,  in  a  narrow  strip  of  rolled  paper.  The 
punched  holes,  like  those  required  for  the  Jacquard 
loom,  serve  as  guides  for  the  operations  of  type- 
casting and  type-setting.  As  this  roll  of  paper  is 
unwound  in  the  larger  machine  the  punched  holes 
direct  the  presentation  of  the  proper  matrix  to  the 
mould.  In  this  mould  melted  metal  is  injected, 
and  perfected  types  are  produced  at  the  rapid  rate 
of  one  hundred  and  fifty  or  more  a  minute.  The 
punching  of  the  holes  requires  a  skilled  operator, 
but  the  additional  operations  of  casting,  setting, 
and  justifying  the  types  are  purely  automatic. 
The  manufacturers  claim  that  the  types  so  made 
are  fully  equal  to  those  made  by  the  older  method, 
and  that  they  can  be  used  again,  if  required,  in 
subsequent  composition  by  hand,  but  it  is  cheaper 
to  make  new  types  than  to  reuse  the  old. 

There  are  other  machines,  still  in  process  of  de- 
velopment, but  not  yet  doing  practical  work,  that 
have  been  devised  for  mechanical  composition. 
In  one,  movable  matrices  are  arranged  over  a  bar 
of  cold  metal,  and  the  letters  are  swaged  by  pres- 
sure. In  another,  types  are  cast  in  little  cubes  and 
then  securely  fastened  on  a  previously  prepared 
bar  or  line  of  metal.  In  another,  the  type-casting 


358  Old  Methods  not  Disused 

machine  supplies  the  magazine  of  the  conjoined 
but  distinct  type-setter  with  a  regular  supply  of 
types. 

Considering  the  many  unexpected  improvements 
that  have  been  made  in  this  century,  it  is  hazard- 
Permanence  ous  to  assume  that  there  can  be  no  more 
of  the  old  improvement  in  type-making ;  but  it  is 
not  at  all  probable  that  the  older  methods  of  type- 
making  will  fall  into  entire  disuse.  There  is  and 
always  will  be  a  vast  amount  of  type-setting  that 
must  be  done  from  single  types  and  by  hand  com- 
position. New  faces  that  are  always  in  limited  re- 
quest, and  on  bodies  smaller  than  agate  or  larger 
than  pica,  will  be  made  by  the  older  casting  ma- 
chine, which  holds  a  position  not  unlike  that  of 
the  hand-press;  for  although  cylinder-presses  now 
do  nearly  all  the  printing  of  the  world,  there  are 
more  hand-presses  made,  sold,  and  used  than  ever. 


XV 


The  Quaint  Styles  of  Plain  Type 

( ORE  attention  has  been  given  to  the 
production  of  quaint  styles  of  text- 
type  during  the  last  decade  of  this 
century  than  the  subject  ever  re- 
ceived during  any  similar  period. 
The  old  craving  for  highly  ornamented  letters 
seems  to  be  dead ;  it  receives  no  encour-  Neglect  of 
agement  from  type-founders.  Printers  ornamentals 
have  been  surfeited  with  ornamented  letters  that 
did  not  ornament  and  did  degrade  composition, 
and  that  have  been  found,  after  many  years  of 
use,  frail,  expensive,  and  not  attractive  to  buyers. 
They  listen  with  more  respect  to  the  teachings  of 
men  who  hold  that  the  proper  function  of  types  is 
to  convey  instruction,  and  that  they  are  not  im- 
proved by  decoration,  any  more  than  a  trowel  is 
by  painting  or  a  saw  by  gilding. 


360  Objections  made  to  Changes 

More  changes  have  been  made  in  the  direction 
of  eccentricity  than  in  that  of  simplicity.  Fantas- 
tic letters  were  never  in  greater  request,  but  they 
rarely  appear  as  types  in  books.  To  see  the  wild- 
est freaks  of  fancy  one  must  seek  them  not  in  the 
specimen  books  of  type-founders,  but  in  the  photo- 
engraved  lettering  made  for  displayed  advertise- 
ments and  tradesmen's  pamphlets.  In  a  treatise 
on  printing-types  further  remark  on  engraved  let- 
tering is  not  needed. 

Although  there  is  a  demand  for  quaintness  in 
decorative  printing,  readers  object  to  any  serious 
departure  from  the  accepted  standards  of  form. 
For  the  types  of  serious  books  roman  letter  has 
been  made  fat  or  thin,  round  or  angled,  weak  or 
bold,  by  type-founders  of  all  countries,  but  vague- 
ness in  any  character  has  never  been  tolerated. 
The  few  improvements  that  have  conquered  stub- 
born prejudices  met  with  opposition  when  they 
were  introduced.  Benjamin  Franklin,  famous  as 
an  innovator  in  many  matters,  lamented  the  dis- 
use of  italic  and  of  capital  letters  for  the  nouns  in 
a  text.  He  pointedly  decried  the  new  fashion  of 
substituting  the  short  final  s  for  the  long  f  at  the 
beginning  or  in  the  middle  of  a  word.  An  Eng- 
lish bishop  compelled  the  reprinting,  to  the  prin- 
ter's loss,  of  his  sermon  in  which  the  long  f  had 
been  supplanted  by  the  short  s.  The  writer  of  this 
chapter  had  a  similar  experience  with  an  author 
who  wanted  old-style  letter,  but  refused  to  accept 


The  Kelmscott  Types  361 

the  pinched  s  of  a  Caslon  old-style,  because  it  was 
too  narrow  to  please  him.  Strong  objection  was 
made  to  truly  lined  arabic  figures ;  the  old  form 
of  figure,  unequal  in  height  and  out  of  line,  was 
preferred.  The  present  form  of  &  was  resisted  as 
inferior  to  fr9.  To  this  day  the  doubled  letters  fi, 
if,  fl,  ffi,  ffl,  ae,  03  continue  to  be  made  by  type- 
founders, when  there  is  no  need  for  these  unsightly 
combinations. 

It  is  the  belief  of  most  readers  that  the  great 
merit  of  typography  is  in  the  unvarying  uniform- 
ity of  every  character.  On  the  contrary,  it  is  held 
by  some  artists  that  roman  types  as  now  made  are 
too  uniform  and  too  monotonous,  too  "  typy,"  and 
altogether  inartistic.  William  Morris  is  reported 
as  saying  4n  1890  that  no  good  book  printing  had 
been  done  since  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, and  that  the  degradation  of  the  art  is  largely 
due  to  mean  types.  To  reform  typography  we 
need  better  types;  we  must  be  more  tolerant  of 
quaintness,  and  must  attempt  the  revival  of  medi- 
eval methods.  It  was  this  conviction  that  impelled 
him  to  design  the  new  form  which  he  called  the 
Grolden  type,  shown  on  page  207  of  this  book.  It 
was  not  his  favorite,  for  he  confessed  his  aversion 
to  classic,  and  his  leaning  to  Teutonic  forms  of  let- 
ters. Not  entirely  content  with  his  first  experi- 
ment, he  decided  that  the  next  should  be  a  new 
form  of  black-letter.  It  was  a  difficult  task,  for  in- 
vention seemed  to  have  been  exhausted  in  the 


362         Services  Rendered  by  Morris 

many  varieties  of  black-letter  previously  shown  by 
type-founders.  He  saw  that  it  was  impracticable 
to  graft  his  notions  of  good  form  on  the  condensed 
fractur  of  the  Germans,  or  on  the  angular  and 
equally  thin  Old  English  or  pointed  black-letter. 
The  broad-faced  round  gothic  of  the  early  printers 
of  Germany  was  accepted  as  more  available,  but 
he  made  his  new  Troy  type  much  wider,  bolder, 
and  blacker.  Most  of  his  lower-case  characters, 
quaint  as  they  may  seem,  are  unexceptionable  as 
to  simplicity.  In  his  capital  letters  he  was  not  as 
successful:  his  forms  of  O,  C,  JM>  N  are  practically 
roman ;  but  his  S,  L,  ^,  V,  f  are  not  gothic,  nor 
good  mates  for  the  lower-case.  A  line  of  capitals 
in  Troy  type  is  not  pleasing.  Morris  made  a  read- 
able lower-case,  but  the  greater  breadth  given  to 
all  letters  for  the  sake  of  greater  blackness  made 
the  spacing  of  words  in  a  composition  of  type  un- 
usually difficult.  To  fill  the  unsightly  gaps  that 
were  unavoidable,  but  inconsistent  with  his  no- 
tions of  thin  spacing,  he  designed  the  unmeaning 
and  often  unpleasing  bits  of  ornamentation  that 
appear  in  the  illustration.  The  Troy  type  appears 
to  best  advantage  in  the  Kelmscott  books,  for  it 
is  there  always  in  harmony  with  the  subject-mat- 
ter. Morris  went  too  far  in  the  exposition  of  his 
theories,  but  the  reading  world  is  indebted  to  him 
for  his  demonstration  of  the  merit  of  a  really  mas- 
culine style.  He  has  shown  as  no  one  ever  did 
before  that  typography  need  not  imitate  photog- 
raphy, lithography,  or  copperplate. 


The  Satanick  Type  363 

ctr>e  TROY  t^pe  of  the 

Kelmscott  press  was  design- 
ed by  QHiUiam  JVIorris  and  cut 
by  6mery  Cdalker  on  the  body 
of  great-primer*  It  was  first 
used  in  printing  tbebook^'Cbe 
Recuyell  of  tbe  IMstoryes  of 
'Croye/'  dated  Htb  October, 
iSpi^'Cbe  Cbaucer  type  is  a 
similar  face  upon  a  pica  body, 
'Cbis  *Croy  type  was  tbe  model 
of  tbe  type  on  tbis  page,wbicb 
is  made  in  tbe  Qnited  States 
by  tbe  Hmerican  'Cype  fbund- 
ers  Co*  on  many  bodies  from 
6-point  to  72-point,j^It  is  a 
composite  letter — so  made  by 
adding  gothic  mannerisms  to 
a  fat-faced  and  angled  roman* 

18-point  body. 


364  The  Jenson  Type 

The  Jenson  type  is  the  American  adaptation 
of  the  Golden  type.  Although  the  specimen  here 
shown  is  on  a  similar  body  of  14-point,  the  round 
letters  of  the  lower-case  of  the  Jenson  are  a  little 
higher,  and  the  body-marks  a  trifle  thicker.  This 
enlargement  and  thickening,  with  more  closely 
fitted  types,  give  more  blackness  to  the  print  and 
less  relief  of  white  between  lines  of  solid  composi- 
tion. The  Jenson  type  has  been  successfully  used 
in  the  United  States  for  the  composition  of  large 
quarto  books  that  are  decorated  with  broad  black 
or  colored  borders.  It  is  sometimes  used  with 
good  effect  for  small  books  in  octavo  or  duodecimo, 
but  it  occupies  too  much  space  and  is  too  sombre 
for  the  ordinary  book.  For  dainty  little  books 
smaller  than  an  18mo  the  smaller  sizes  of  this  style 
are  well  adapted.  When  leaded  they  give  a  clear- 
ness to  fine  print  not  to  be  had  from  any  face  of 
ordinary  roman  letter.  The  Jenson  capitals  are 
often  selected  for  title-pages  that  call  for  bold  and 
large  letters;  but  the  close  fitting  of  the  capitals 
makes  obligatory  an  unequal  spacing  of  types  too 
closely  fitted.  The  recent  addition  of  an  italic 
letter  having  all  the  peculiarities  of  the  Jenson, 
lining  and  mating  with  it,  causes  it  to  be  preferred 
by  job  printers  and  advertisers  for  the  display  of 
type.  It  was  planned  by  J.  W.  Phinney  of  the  old 
Dickinson  Foundry  of  Boston.  It  is  founded  on 
many  bodies  from  6-point  to  72-point,  and  is  sold 
by  the  American  Type  Founders  Company. 


The  Jenson  Type  365 

NICOLAS  JENSON,  an  engraver 
of  the  mint,  was  sent  to  Mainz  in 
J  458  by  Charles  VII,  King  of  France, 
to  get  a  knowledge  of  the  new  art  of 
printing.  He  went  back  to  Paris  in 
J46J,  but  it  is  not  probable  that  he 
there  did  any  typographic  work*  In 
147  \  he  printed  four  books  at  Venice, 
and  there  continued  to  print  until  his 
death  in  U8  J.  Pope  Sixtus  IV  gave 
him  the  title  of  Count  Palatine  for 
his  services  to  typography*  At  differ- 
ent times  he  had  as  partners  in  busi- 
ness John  of  Cologne  and  John  Her- 
bort  of  Selingenstadt*  Strikes  from 
the  punches  of  the  Jenson  roman,  of 
which  Jenson  had  made  one  size  only, 
were  acquired  after  his  death  by  An- 
drew Torresani  of  Asola,  and  they 
were  afterward  used  by  his  son-in- 
law  Aldus  Manutius*  Jenson  was 
not  the  first  printer  to  make  roman 
types,  but  his  face  of  roman  was  re- 
garded as  better  than  that  of  any  rival. 

14-point  body. 
American  Type  Founders  Co. 


366  Fifteenth  Century  Style 

The  Fifteenth  Century  Style  was  made  to  sup- 
ply a  demand  for  a  rude  form  of  roman,  which  is 
erroneously  supposed  to  be  the  form  of  roman 
first  used  by  the  early  printers.  The  larger  sizes 
are  most  approved  j  the  smaller  sizes  are  somewhat 
obscured  by  the  compression  of  unequally  propor- 
tioned characters.  This  series  fitly  illustrates  the 
impracticability  of  making  types  in  many  sizes  by 
geometrical  rules,  as  was  recommended  by  the 
old  theorists  in  type-making.  Large  sizes  may  be 
compressed  with  advantage,  but  small  sizes  must 
be  expanded  to  maintain  their  legibility. 

This  style  seems  to  be  the  clever  adaptation  of 
an  uncouth  type  used  by  Windelin  of  Speyer  in 
his  edition  of  John  Duns  Scotus,  a  thick,  quarto 
(8£  x  6J  inches)  of  652  pages,  printed  at  Venice 
about  1475.  The  mean  type  of  this  book  is  en- 
tirely unlike  the  beautiful  large  roman  type  of  the 
Livy  printed  by  John  and  Windelin  of  Speyer  in 
1472,  and  the  reader  wonders  that  this  degrada- 
tion in  form  could  have  been  made  in  three  years. 
Brown,  in  his  valuable  book  on  the  Venetian  Print- 
ing Press,  suggests  the  explanation.  A  short  ex- 
perience had  demonstrated  to  printers  that  books 
in  large  types  and  of  folio  form  cost  too  much  and 
found  few  buyers.  To  meet  the  preference  of  Ital- 
ian printers  for  roman  types  and  smaller  books, 
Windelin  had  made  for  him  a  new  face  of  roman 
on  pica  body  and  of  condensed  shape,  with  intent 
to  put  the  matter  of  a  folio  on  a  page  of  quarto. 


Fifteenth-Century  Roman  367 

THE  FIRST  ROMAN  TYPES 

about  four  lines  to  the  inch,  were 
made  at  Subiaco,  near  Rome,  in 

the  year  1465  by  the  German  printers  Sweynheim  and 
Pannartz.  It  was  not  a  pleasing  character,  for  the  let- 
ters were  rudely  cut  with  thick  lines,  condensed  as  to 
shape,  and  were  too  closely  fitted.  In  its  lower  case 
it  resembled  the  gothic  more  than  the  roman  style.  In 
1467  the  same  printers  made  at  Rome  a  new  roman, 
broader  as  to  shape,  and  with  types  not  so  closely  fitted, 
but  it  was  not  acceptable  to  Italian  readers.  In  1469  John 
and  Windelin  of  Speyer  made  a  much  lighter  and  rounder 
style  of  roman,  but  the  types  were  too  widely  fitted.  The 
true  standard  of  form  and  proportion,  of  fitting  and  lin- 
ing, was  shown  for  the  first  time  by  Nicolas  Jenson  in 
1470,  and  was  readily  accepted  by  Ratdolt  and  Renner  of 
the  same  city,  and  the  type-founders  of  all  countries. 
Mongrel  romans,  or  combinations  of  roman  and  gothic, 
were  introduced  in  Germany,  but  they  were  not  approved 
and  soon  went  out  of  fashion.  Disproportioned  and  un- 
couth shapes  of  roman,  uneven  lining  and  bad  type-found- 
ing, were  not  long  tolerated  in  the  fifteenth  century. 

This  XVth-century  face  was  devised  by  Barnhart 
Brothers  6  Spindler,  of  Chicago,  in  1896,  and  is  made 
by  them  of  roman  and  italic  form  in  many  sizes  from 
8-point  to  ^8-point.  To  advertisers  who  intend  to  give  to 
print  an  appearance  of  early  rudeness  this  face  is  welcome. 
12-  and  18-point  bodies. 


368  The  Eenner  Type 

Unfortunately,  the  new  type  was  badly  cut  and 
cast.  The  types  were  closely  fitted  and  out  of  line, 
and  many  letters  seem  high-to-paper,  making  faults 
in  press- work.  The  letters  are  disproportioned ; 
every  page  swarms  with  contractions  and  abbre- 
viations. The  new  style  must  have  been  a  failure, 
for  I  have  never  seen  it  in  any  other  book. 

The  Rermer  type,  which  follows,  is  a  fair  copy, 
but  not  a  servile  imitation,  of  the  style  of  type  de- 
vised by  Franz  Renner  of  Venice,  and  first  used  by 
him  in  his  edition  of  the  "  Quadragesimale"  of  1472. 
It  was  made  in  1899  for  the  service  of  the  De  Vinne 
Press,  to  exemplify  the  belief  of  the  writer  that 
the  legibility  of  print  does  not  depend  so  much 
upon  an  increase  in  the  blackness  or  thickness  of 
its  stems  as  on  the  entire  and  instant  visibility  of 
every  line  in  every  character.  It  was  planned  in 
conformity  to  the  rules  observed  by  all  the  old  print- 
ers :  the  short  letters  occupy  about  one-third  of  the 
body ;  the  ascenders  and  descenders,  equalin  length, 
give  the  full  relief  of  white  space  between  the  lines 
which  contributes  so  much  to  easy  reading. 

Although  the  types  of  William  Morris  have  been 
put  aside  by  publishers  as  unfitted  for  the  texts 
of  ordinary  books,  they  have  exerted  a  marked  in- 
fluence on  the  tastes  of  many  readers.  They  have 
demonstrated  most  successfully  the  importance  of 
a  type  that  gives  fitting  expression  to  the  sub- 
ject-matter. Unfortunately,  there  are  readers  who 
do  not  fully  appreciate  the  value  of  this  harmony 


The  Eenner  Type  369 

FRANZ  RENNER,  of  Hailbrun,  Ger- 
many, was  the  sixth  printer  of  Venice,  in 
which  city  he  practised  his  art  with  suc- 
cess between  the  years  1470  and  1494* 
In  John  and  Windelin  de  Speyer  and  in 
Nicolas  Jenson,  who  had  preceded  him, 
he  found  rivals  of  great  ability,  who  were 
trying  to  please  Italian  readers  with  new 
faces.  Franz  Renner  was  moved  to 
emulation.  The  model  of  roman  which 
he  selectedhadmarkedgraceof  form, but 
it  was  of  much  lighter  face  than  the  types 
of  his  predecessors.  This  preference  of 
the  first  Italian  printers  for  large  roman 
characters  proved  a  mistake.  Not  only 
Jenson,  but  Renner  and  other  printers  of 
Venice,  found  it  expedient  to  print  the 
largest  number  of  subsequent  books  from 
gothic  types  of  small  size,  condensed  and 
of  very  black  face.  The  large  roman  was 
wasteful  of  space,  and  made  books  bulky 
and  dear;  the  gothic  was  more  compact 
and  enabled  the  printer  to  put  more  words 
on  a  page.  Roman  types  were  not  ac- 
ceptable until  they  were  made  small. 

14-point  body. 
The  De  Vinne  Press. 
45 


370         Types  need  a  Belief  of  Blank 

between  type  aud  text ;  and  there  are  printers  who 
do  not  see  how  the  merit  of  these  peculiar  forms 
of  old-style  faces  is  enhanced  by  Morris's  admi- 
rable selection  of  paper,  press,  and  processes  of 
printing.  Some  attribute  the  merit  of  the  Kelm- 
scott  letters  to  their  quaintness  of  design,  but  more 
to  the  largeness  of  their  type  and  the  blackness  of 
the  print.  They  jump  to  the  conclusion  that  a 
readable  print  must  be  an  over-black  print,  and 
that  the  thickening  of  the  stems  and  the  broaden- 
ing of  the  form  of  ordinary  roman  type,  so  that  it 
may  receive  more  ink  and  impression,  are  all  that  is 
needed  for  readability.  This  is  a  serious  mistake, 
but  one  that  has  been  repeatedly  made.  As  early 
as  the  first  half  of  the  sixteenth  century  thick- 
stemmed  roman  types,  mainly  on  pica  body,  were 
made  and  used  at  Paris  and  Venice.  They  were 
fairly  tested,  but  soon  went  out  of  fashion.  The 
fat-faces  of  Thorne  in  London  and  of  Didot  in 
Paris,  introduced  in  the  first  quarter  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  had  a  fair  trial,  and  have  been  put 
aside  as  complete  failures.  Something  more  than 
blackness  and  fatness  is  required  to  produce  the 
highest  legibility. 

Types  need  a  generous  relief  of  white  space,  not 
only  within  but  without  each  character,  to  give 
proper  value  to  their  black  lines.  Every  reader 
sees  that  a  display  line  in  condensed  type  is  not 
as  readable  as  in  types  of  standard  width,  and 
that  leaded  is  always  more  attractive  than  solid 


Blanks  disapproved  by  Morris        371 

type;  yet  a  title-page  set  entirely  in  light-faced 
roman  capitals,  even  when  the  displayed  lines  are 
condensed  and  the  minor  lines  are  in  capitals 
needlessly  small,  may  be  readable  and  inviting. 
Its  legibility  and  attractiveness  are  largely  pro- 
duced by  the  wide  blanks  between  the  lines.  Take 
out  these  blanks  and  huddle  the  lines  together, 
and  it  will  be  found  that  the  once  pleasing  composi- 
tion has  been  made  as  repelling  as  a  squeezed  ad- 
vertisement in  a  daily  newspaper.  It  may  seem 
unnecessary  to  repeat  this  platitude,  but  there  is 
need  for  its  repetition  with  emphasis.  Publishers 
of  newspapers  and  books  are  continually  demand- 
ing types  with  faces  too  large  for  the  bodies,  and 
with  short  ascenders  and  descenders  that  seriously 
contract  the  narrow  lane  of  white  space  between 
lines.  Type-founders,  trying  to  meet  this  demand, 
sometimes  fit  types  so  closely  that  the  white  space 
between  two  meeting  types  of  m  is  less  than  the 
space  between  the  stems  of  each  individual  in. 
Even  William  Morris  advises  that  each  type  be 
made  so  that  it  shall  nearly  fill  its  body ;  that 
the  white  space  between  lines  be  made  small ;  that 
leads  be  used  only  when  unavoidable ;  and  that  the 
spaces  between  words  always  be  made  thin.  This 
counsel  is  what  might  have  been  expected  from  a 
printer  whose  types  were  too  large  for  the  matter 
of  his  books,  and  who,  to  avoid  added  expense,  was 
compelled  to  publish  many  of  them  in  quarto  form 
and  in  two  or  three  volumes,  and  to  treat  poetry 


372  The  Romische  Versalien 

as  prose,  when  necessity  directed,  by  running  verse 
together  in  solid  paragraphs.  It  will  be  admitted 
that  leads  and  spaces  are  often  used  unwisely,  to 
the  damage  of  good  printing,  but  this  admission 
does  not  invalidate  the  general  experience  that 
print  to  be  most  readable  must  have  more  of 
white  than  of  black  within  the  page.  Considera- 
tions of  economy  often  compel  the  publisher  to 
make  use  of  large-faced  type,  to  space  close  and 
reject  leads;  but  the  reader  always  prefers  types 
that  are  not  huddled  and  that  are  easily  read. 


THE  LARGE  CAPITALS 

IN  THIS  ILLUSTRATION  ARE 

EXHIBITS  OF  A  NEW  STYLE  OF 

ROMAN 

SUITABLE  FOR  BOLD  TITLE-PAGES 
AND  FOR  PLAIN  PRINTING  IN 

COLORED  INKS 


Romische  Versalien. 
Genzsch  &  Heyse,  Hamburg. 


The  Bradford  Face  373 

To  meet  the  demand  for  a  bolder  face  of  roman 
type  than  any  then  made  for  strict  book-work, 
Grenzsch  &  Heyse  of  Hamburg,  Germany,  have 
recently  produced  a  full  series  of  the  types  par- 
tially exhibited  on  the  preceding  page.  The  series 
with  lower-case  letters  is  called  by  these  founders 
Romische  Antiqua;  the  series  of  capital  letters 
only,  Romische  Versalien.  This  face  is  much 
bolder  than  that  of  the  -Caslon  or  of  any  other 
form  of  old-style.  It  is  not  so  bold  as  the  De  Vinne, 
but  it  does  not  have  the  eccentric  letters  of  the 
latter  style,  which  prevent  its  employment  as  a 
text-letter  in  all  books  intended  to  be  severely  sim- 
ple as  to  style.  For  the  title-pages  of  large  quarto 
or  folio  books  it  is  admirably  adapted.  Its  broad 
lines,  but  not  too  bold  face,  enable  the  pressman 
to  give  to  it  a  generous  supply  of  ink.  In  an 
office  provided  with  this  series  the  compositor  has 
no  temptation  to  select  light-faced  antiques,  eel- 
tics,  or  runics  for  the  words  of  a  title  that  are 
marked  for  display  in  red  ink.  This  style  is  made 
by  the  A.  D.  Farmer  &  Son  Type  Founding  Com- 
pany of  New  York  in  complete  series  of  capitals 
and  lower-case,  graded  from  8-point  to  72-point, 
and  is  sold  by  them  under  the  name  of  the  Brad- 
ford Face.  The  capitals  maintain  their  merit  in 
all  sizes  and  combinations,  but  the  lower-case  of 
the  smaller  sizes  does  not  so  fully  and  advanta- 
geously show  the  peculiarities  of  the  style. 


374  The  MacFarland  Type 

THE  MACFARLAND  FACE 
of  the  St.  Louis  Type  Foundry, 
presented  on  this  page,  is  cast  on 
many  bodies,  from  6-point  to  72- 
point.  In  boldness  and  simpli- 
city it  is  a  worthy  rival  of  the  R6- 
mische;  but  it  has  some  meritori- 
ous peculiarities  of  its  own.  The 
Romische,  MacFarland,  and  Fif- 
teenth Century  faces  appear  to 
best  advantage  on  the  larger  bod- 
ies. The  8-point  seems  to  be, 
and  probably  is,  a  truly  propor- 
tioned reduction  of  a  very  large 
size,  but  it  does  not  produce  the 
same  effect.  It  demonstrates  the 
futility  of  making  types  by  arbi- 
trary geometrical  rules. 

18-point  body. 
St.  Louis  Type  Foundry. 


Uniformity  in  Effect  is  Impossible     375 

Lines  that  are  not  too  black  in  the  larger  sizes 
seem  too  black  in  the  smallest  size.  The  relief 
of  white  space  that  is  ample  in  the  solid  compo- 
sition of  24-point  is  too  small  for  a  solid  compo- 
sition on  the  8-point  body.  Nor  does  leading  the 
lines  entirely  remove  the  defect. 

How  the  desired  uniformity  in  effect  is  to  be 
preserved  throughout  a  series  of  sizes  is  still  a 
puzzle  to  all  type-founders.  A  gradual  increase 
in  the  width  of  each  type,  as  types  decrease  in 
size,  is  an  aid,  but  it  is  not  enough;  and  this  ex- 
periment is  always  attended  with  danger,  for  a 
slight  expansion  may  seriously  alter  the  peculiar- 
ity of  the  style.  The  lengthening  of  ascenders 
and  descenders  is  another  aid ;  but  no  one  as  yet 
can  lay  down  any  rule  as  to  the  proper  length. 
The  thinning  of  the  stem  or  body-mark  by  a  small 
fraction  of  a  millimetre  produces  improved  light- 
ness ;  but  it  is  another  experiment  of  risk  that  may 
destroy  the  character  of  the  style.  All  type- 
founders know  that  when  equal  skill  and  care 
have  been  given  to  the  cutting  of  every  size,  and 
proper  precautions  have  been  taken  to  prevent 
optical  illusions,  one  size  will  always  seem  more 
pleasing  than  any  other.  Reductions  of  type  are 
as  disastrous  as  reductions  of  drawings.  The  de- 
sign that  covers  one  hundred  square  inches  on 
paper  may  be  entirely  pleasing  in  light  and  shade 
and  general  effect,  but  it  becomes  confused  and 
indistinct  when  reduced  to  ten  square  inches. 


376  The  Century  Face 

THE  CENTURY  FACE  was  designed  to  make  for  the 
Century  Magazine  a  blacker  and  more  readable  type 
than  the  thin  and  gray-printing  old-style  letter  in 
which  it  had  been  printed  for  many  years.  The  hair- 
lines of  this  Century  face  were  made  of  a  perceptible 
thickness,  the  serifs  were  shortened,  and  the  body- 
marks  protracted  a  trifle.  To  secure  a  proper  relief 
of  white  space  within  each  character  the  round  let- 
ters were  made  a  little  taller.  To  proportion  the  type 
for  a  large  page  in  two  columns  and  with  narrow  mar- 
gins, and  to  give  the  usual  amount  of  text  in  the  Cen- 
tury page,  the  characters  were  compressed  a  trifle. 
The  lower-case  alphabet  of  the  modernized  old-style 
on  long-primer  body,  previously  used  on  this  maga- 
zine, was  twelve  and  a  half  ems  wide;  in  this  face,  which 
is  much  larger,  it  is  twelve  and  an  eighth  ems  wide. 
Leaded  with  twelve-to-pica  leads. 

The  changes  from  old  standards,  purposely  made  by 
the  designer,  were  not  of  great  importance,  but  most  of 
them  were  in  directions  that  had  been  usually  avoided 
by  type-makers.  The  thickened  lines  enable  the  press- 
man to  produce  print  that  is  really  black  and  not 
apparently  gray,  as  was  unavoidable  in  press-work  on 
small  sizes  of  modernized  old-style.  This  face  was 
modelled  and  cut  by  Mr.  L.  B.  Benton,  and  is  made  on 
the  bodies  of  10-  9-  and  8-point,  by  the  American  Type 
Founders  Company.  For  long  lines  of  poetry  printed 
in  duodecimo  or  in  any  smaller  size,  as  well  as  for  all 
compact  composition  in  a  narrow  measure,  this  style 
of  face  is  properly  adapted.  THESE  ARE  THE  SMALL 
CAPITALS  and  these  the  italic  characters  of  this  font. 
Solid. 


The  Century  Broad-face  377 

THE  CENTURY  BROAD-FACE  was  made  by 
the  De  Vinne  Press  for  service  on  books  to  be 
set  in  a  broad  measure,  which  do  not  require  a 
compression  of  letters  for  the  saving  of  space. 
It  retains  the  thickened  hair-line,  the  short  serif, 
and  all  the  characteristics  of  the  face  described 
on  the  previous  page.  The  purpose  of  the  de- 
signer was  to  give  to  each  letter  a  larger  face 
than  is  usual  in  text-types  of  this  body,  with  as 
much  boldness  of  line  as  would  be  consistent 
with  the  greatest  legibility.  This  desired  large- 
ness with  boldness  has  been  carried  to  its  full- 
est extreme.  It  is  a  readable  letter  when  it  is 
set  solid,  but  it  is  made  more  readable  when  the 
lines  have  been  separated  by  a  twelve-to-pica  lead. 
Leaded  with  twelve-to-pica  leads. 

Types  are  not  always  made  more  readable  by 
giving  them  larger  and  blacker  faces.  The  at- 
tractiveness of  a  very  black-faced  type  when  used 
in  one  line  or  in  a  few  lines  becomes  repelling 
when  it  is  used  in  a  mass.  A  page  of  fat-faced 
type  compels  a  greater  strain  on  the  eye  than  a 
page  of  ordinary  book-type.  What  a  reader  needs 
for  pleasurable  reading  is  the  instant  visibility  of 
every  stroke  in  every  letter;  but  this  visibility  is 
dimmed  when  the  types  have  too  much  black. 
The  strength  of  the  black  is  weakened  when  its 
relief  of  white  is  diminished.  THESE  ARE  THE 
SMALL  CAPITALS  and  these  the  italic  characters 
of  this  font.  The  lower-case  alphabet  of  this 
face  is  thirteen  and  one  half  ems  wide. 
Solid. 


378  The  Old  Roman  Face 

OLD  ROMAN  is  the  name  given  to  this 
entirely  new  series  of  text  letter,  in  which 
most  of  the  good  features  of  the  old-style 
character  have  been  preserved;  the  hair- 
lines and  body-marks  have  been  thick- 
ened, and  the  serifs  have  been  shortened, 
but  not  pointed  or  bracketed.  Increased 
width  has  been  given  to  every  character, 
but  without  producing  any  appearance  of 
undue  expansion  or  obesity.  It  is  a  most 
readable  type,  which  can  be  used  with 
perfect  propriety  in  standard  books,  for 
which  the  bold  and  black  faces  of  many 
recent  styles  are  not  adapted.  It  is  made 
by  H.  W.  Caslon  &  Co.,  of  London,  on 
bodies  of  Pica,  Small  Pica,  Long  Primer, 
Bourgeois,  and  Brevier.  Unlike  a  great 
many  new  styles,  it  will  bear  reduction 
without  loss  of  legibility.  The  object  the 
founders  had  in  view  when  producing 
this  series  was  to  secure  greater  plain- 
ness, and,  therefore,  facility  in  reading. 
Hitherto  legibility  of  type  faces  has  been 
sacrificed  to  fine  lines  and  hair  serifs. 

Designed  by  T.  W.  Smith  for  H.  W.  Caslon  &  Co.,  London. 


Types  made  Ineffective  in  Print       379 

Many  of  the  quaint  types  recently  introduced, 
and  intended  to  be  very  black  in  print,  are  a  disap- 
pointment to  publishers.  In  most  instances  the 
disappointment  comes  not  from  fault  in  the  type, 
but  from  faulty  methods  of  printing.  The  Jenson 
or  Satanick  types  (or  even  the  old-style  antiques 
now  often  used  as  fair  substitutes  for  older  styles 
of  text-types)  are  relatively  ineffective  when  they 
are  printed  dry  against  a  hard  impression  surface 
upon  coarse  and  rough  laid  paper  made  from  badly 
prepared  wood-pulp.  Under  these  conditions  no 
art  of  the  printer  can  give  to  the  print  the  solidity 
of  color  noticeable  in  all  well-printed  old  books. 
The  grayness  of  type  so  treated  is  not  produced, 
as  is  sometimes  asserted,  by  machine  printing,  for 
a  well-made  cylinder  printing-machine  has  more 
strength  than  any  hand-press,  and  it  can  ink  the 
types  with  more  evenness.  To  make  sure  of  old- 
style  results,  old-style  methods  must  be  used :  the 
paper  must  be  of  hard  stock  and  properly  damp- 
ened, and  the  impression  must  be  resisted  by  an 
elastic  blanket.  The  press- work  must  not  be  hur- 
ried; ink  must  be  dry  upon  one  side  of  the  sheet 
before  beginning  reiteration  on  the  other  side. 


INDEX 


Accents,  not  furnished  in  regular 
assortment  for  font,  12,  172,  173 

Adams,  Isaac,  inventor  of  Adams 
printing-press,  sketch  of,  227 

Adams,  Joseph  Alexander,  Ameri- 
can wood-engraver,  successful 
experiments  of,  in  electrotyping 
woodcuts,  18  (note),  219 ;  develops 
method  of  overlaying  and  mak- 
ing-ready woodcuts,  219;  four- 
and  six-roller  Adams  presses  first 
made  at  his  suggestion,  219 

Agate  (5^-point),  classed  as  an  ir- 
regular body,  58;  capital  and 
lower-case  alphabets  of,  60,  61 ;  a 
favorite  size  for  newspaper  ad- 
vertisements, 67 ;  known  in  Eng- 
land as  ruby,  67;  examples  of, 
solid  and  leaded,  98,  99 ;  adver- 
tisements in,  106 ;  standard  width 
of,  114 

Aldine,  an  approved  form  of  con- 
densed title,  285 

Alost,  announcement  of  John  of 
Westphalia  at,  80;  types  made 
at,  equal  to  those  of  France  and 
Italy,  92 

Alphabet,  examples  of  sizes  of,  in 
standard  types,  60,  61;  various 
widths  of,  in  different  types,  114- 
116;  inadequacy  of  the  roman, 
235 ;  limits  of  size  for  a  readable, 
259  (see  also  note) ;  simplification 
of,  due  to  early  printers,  293  (see 
also  note  1) 

America,  type-casting  machines  in, 
26  (note) ;  extensive  use  of  stereo- 
typing by  publishers  in.  40 ;  excel- 
sior, or  3-point,  used  for  music, 


etc.,  in,  68;  first  practical  at- 
tempt to  establish  correct  pro- 
portions of  types  in,  146-149; 
Scotch-face  first  shown  in,  213 

American  Type  Founders  Com- 
pany. See* Type  Founders  Com- 
pany, American 

Amsterdam,  notable  type-founders 
at,  92 

Anderson,  Alexander,  the  father  of 
American  wood-engraving,  notice 
of,  216 

Andrews,  Robert,  the  successor  of 
Moxoii,  unsatisfactory  work  of, 
96 

Anglo-black,  description  and  illus- 
tration of,  312 

Antimony,  a  constituent  of  type- 
metal,  9,  32  (see  also  note),  33,  35 
(note) 

Antique,  stronger  impression  ne- 
cessary for  page  of,  51,  52;  de- 
scription of,  184 ;  the  lighter  faces 
of,  used  for  distinction  in  some 
texts,  236;  newer  styles  of,  pre- 
ferred for  condensed  letters,  266 ; 
firm  lines  of  doric,  289;  charac- 
teristics of,  323 ;  the  earliest  form 
of  bold  display  type,  323 ;  exam- 
ples of,  324 ;  formerly  the  most 
popular  of  display  types,  325 ;  ex- 
ample of  old-style,  325 ;  remarks 
upon  different  styles  of,  325,  326 ; 
old-style  peculiarities  attached 
to,  326;  lightest  and  most  open 
form  of,  326 ;  examples  of  various 
faces  of,  326,  327 ;  other  styles  of, 
327;  examples  of  latin  and  con- 
densed, 328,  329 ;  remarks  upon, 


382 


Index 


and  example  of,  the  Gushing  old- 
style,  329,  330:  examples  of,  and 
remarks  upon,  other  styles,  330- 
334;  effective  for  display  and 
colored  work,  334;  example  of, 
and  remarks  upon,  No.  27,  corps 
.">,  ;W4.  335 ;  smaller  sizes  of  light- 
faced,  used  with  good  results  for 
little  books,  334,  335 

Antwerp,  various  tvpe-founders  em- 
ployed by  Plantm  in,  92 

Ascenders,*  types  with  long,  49,  50 ; 
tvpes  with  short,  50 ;  their  rela- 
tion to  the  type  body,  58 

Atlas,  a  bold  form  of  title-type,  289 

Augsburg,  early  printers  of,  under- 
take to  furnish  small  ornamental 
initials,  83 

Austin,  Richard,  a  noted  English 
punch-cutter,  and  his  successors, 
102 

Baine,  John,  with  his  grandson,  es- 
tablishes type-foundry  at  Phila- 
delphia, 102. 

Bamberg  Missal  of  1481,  largest 
text-types  used  in,  84 

Barker,  Christopher,  queen's  print- 
er in  1582,  report  of,  on  printing, 
95 

Barth,  Henry,  'invents  a  complete 
type-casting  machine,  27,  28;  il- 
lustration and  description  of  his 
height-to-paper  gauge,  153 

Baskerville,  John,  an  eminent  Eng- 
lish type-founder,  biographical 
sketch  of,  99 

Basle  old-style,  remarks  upon,  and 
example  of,  198, 199  (see  also  note  1) 

Battery,  use  of,  in  electrotyping,  18 

Beard,  in  types.     See  Neck 

Beaumarchais,  Pierre  Augustin 
Caron  de,  French  author,  super- 
intends edition  of  Voltaire  in 
Baskerville  types,  99 

Benton,  L.  B.,  of  Milwaukee,  in- 
ventor of  punch-cutting  machine, 
350;  his  machines  for  shaping 
and  sharpening  its  cutting  tools, 
353 ;  superiority  claimed  for 
punches  completed  by  his  ma- 
chine, 353 

Berthold,  Heinrich,  Berlin  type- 
founder, adjusts  hdight  of  Ger- 
man types  to  French  standard, 
131  (see  also  note) 

Bessemer,  Anthony,  an  English  in- 
ventor and  type-founder,  101,  102 


Bewick,  Thomas,  eminent  wood- 
engraver,  sketch  of,  206 

Bey,  Jacob,  establishes  a  second 
foundry  at  Germantown,  Pa.,  102 

Bible,  the,  pearl  a  favorite  type  for 
pocket  editions  of,  G7 

Bible  of  36  lines,  printed  from  types 
of  double  pica  oody,  74 

Bible  of  42  lines,  type  on  paragon 
body  favored  by  printer  of,  63 ; 
illuminated  at  Mentz  in  1456,  74 ; 
supposed  to  have  been  printed 
by  Gutenberg  before  1455,  293 
(note2) ;  old  English  black-letter 
modeled  on  lower-case  letters  of, 
294  (see  also  note  2) 

Bible-text,  great-primer  also  known 
as,  63  (note);  that  of  Gutenberg 
the  basis  of  modern  black-letter, 
91 

Bill,  in  typography.     See  Scheme 

Binny,  Archibald,  Scottish  type- 
founder, devises  first  improve- 
ment in  hand-casting,  26  (note) : 
forms  partnership  with  Ronald- 
son  and  establishes  type-foundry 
at  Philadelphia,  102,  202 ;  his  in- 
ventions and  successors,  102 ,  re- 
ceives valuable  suggestions  from 
the  type-founding  tools  formerly 
owned  by  Franklin,  155  (note) 

Black,  early  English  type-founders 
adhere  to  the  pointed,  300;  ex- 
ample of  Old  English,  300;  in- 
troduction of  the  fat-faced,  301; 
denunciation  of  fat-faced,  by 
Hansard  and  Dibdin,  301  (see  also 
notes) ;  examples  of  fat-faced,  301 ; 
fat-faced,  in  favor  for  many  years, 
302 ;  fat-faced,  not  popular  in 
France  and  Germany,  302 ;  Augus- 
tan, 307 ;  remarks  upon  the  light- 
face  and  bold-face  condensed,  307, 
308,309;  exam  pie  of  Augustan,  308: 
example  of  bold-face  condensed, 
309;  remarks  upon  Saxon,  311, 
312;  remarks  upon,  and  example 
of,  Anglo-black,  312;  remarks 
upon,  and  examples  of,  medieval, 
313,  314 

Black-letter,  Gutenberg's  Bible- 
text  the  basis  of  modern,  91;  the 
form  of,  preferred  by  early  Eng- 
lish printers  still  regarded  as  best, 
93  :  a  degenerate  form  of  roman, 
184,  291 ;  beginning  of,  291 ;  called 
gothic  by  bibliographers,  291  (see 
also  note);  form  approved  by  copy- 


Index 


383 


ists  before  invention  of  print- 
ing, 291,  292 ;  old  fashions  of,  292 ; 
used  as  type-name  after  intro- 
duction of  roman,  292 ;  obscurity 
of  early  forms  of  manuscript,  293 ; 
one  of  the  two  styles  selected  by 
early  printers,  293  (see  also  note 
2) ;  remarks  upon  pointed,  294 
(see  also  note  2),  295;  pointed 
form  of,  commended  by  Moxon 
and  selected  by  Pickering,  295, 
296;  strictly  German  styles  of, 
not  used  for  book-texts  by  Eng- 
lish publishers,  296,  297 ;  example 
of,  and  remarks  upon,  Flemish 
style  of,  296;  designers  of  early 
forms  of,  avoided  hair-lines,  302; 
remarks  upon,  and  example  of, 
French  form  of,  302,  303 ;  other 
forms  of,  devised  by  German  type- 
founders, 305 ;  remarks  upon  new 
fashions  of,  introduced  by  Amer- 
ican type-founders,  306,  307;  the 
Morris  Troy  type  a  new  form 
of,  361;  the* Bradley  style  of,  314 

Blades,  William,  on  type-founding 
in  the  Netherlands,  92;  his  re- 
view of  the  types  of  the  En- 
schede  Foundry,  253  (note);  on 
the  business  relations  of  Caxton 
and  Mansion,  297  (note) 

Blaew,  William  Jansen,  a  distin- 
guished Dutch  printer,  197 

Blanket,  injurious  effect  of  elastic, 
under  heavy  impression,  52 

Bodoni,  Giambattista,  Italian  typog- 
rapher, "  Manual e  Tipografico  " 
of,  cited,  56  (note) ;  ability  of,  as 
superintendent  of  the  Press  of 
the  Propaganda,  90;  makes  Du- 
cal Printing  Hoiise  at  Parma  first 
in  Europe,  90 ;  his  peculiar  styles 
of  roman  and  italic,  90;  styles 
of,  disliked  by  Morris,  207 ;  brief 
popularity  of  styles  of,  209 ;  char- 
acteristics of  new  forms  of  letter 
introduced  by,  217,  218 

Body,  in  types,  illustration  of  va- 
rious dimensio7is  of,  29 ;  descrip- 
tion of,  31 ;  regular  and  irregular, 
58,  59;  display  and  ornamental 
types  usually  cast  on  regular,  59 ; 
differences  of,  106 ;  name  of  type 
determined  by  size  of,  110;  to 
find  the  size  of,  110,  111  (see  also 
note  1) ;  irregularity  of,  a  serious 
fault,  124;  beginning  of  irregu- 
larity in.  126;  readjustment  of, 


in  France,  142,  143  ;  comparative 
table  of  three  different  systems 
of,  157;  change  of,  in  English 
types,  158 ;  relations  as  to  ems 
existing  between  types  of  differ- 
ent, 179  (see  also  note),  180 ;  reg- 
ular and  irregular  progression  of, 
illustrated,  181 

Body-mark,  or  Stem,  in  types,  il- 
lustration of,  29 ;  description  of, 
30;  in  "pica,  36;  in  pearl,  36; 
should  seem  to  be  uniform,  49 ; 
improved  joining  of  serif  and,  51 

Bold-face,  limitations  of  modern, 
211 ;  example  of  modern,  on  pica 
211;  many  sizes  needed  to  com- 
plete series  of,  246;  superiority 
of,  over  earlier  fat-face,  284 ;  con- 
densed forms  of,  284,  285;  re- 
marks upon  the  Aldine,  285 ;  ex- 
amples of  condensed  and  extra 
condensed,  285 ;  condensed  old- 
style,  288;  De  Vinne,  examples 
of,  and  remarks  upon,  288,  289 

Book,  the  earliest  bearing  printed 
date,  72;  first,  entirely  in  Greek, 
85;  first,  entirely  in  Hebrew,  85; 
first  printed,  in  the  English  lan- 
guage, 297  (see  also  note) 

Books,  early  printed,  copies  of  the 
manuscript  model,  82 ;  blanks  left 
for  decorations  in  early,  seldom 
filled,  83 

Book-type,  roman,  requires  en- 
graving of  nearly  one  hundred 
and  fifty  punches  for  font  of,  12, 
13 ;  modern,  seldom  cut  in  series. 
108 ;  sizes  embraced  in  series  of, 
240;  importance  of  distinctness 
in,  254 

Book-work,  types  larger  than  great- 
primer  rarely  used  for,  108 

Borders,  added  by  professional  il- 
luminator to  early  printed  books, 
82;  space  left  for,  in  some  early 
printed  books,  83  ;  marked  merit 
of  those  used  by  early  French 
printers,  86 

Borussian,  a  useful  letter  for  legal 
formularies,  306;  examples  of 
bold-face  and  light-face,  306 

Bourgeois  (9-point),  illustration  of 
body  of,  29;  classed  as  an  irregu 
lar  body,  58;  capital  and  lower 
case  alphabets  of,  60,  61;  prob- 
able origin  of  name,  66;  exam- 
ples of,  solid  and  leaded,  90,  91  ; 
standard  width  of,  114 


384 


Index 


Bradford,  William,  first  printer  in 
New  York,  sketch  of,  211 

Bradford  face.    See  Romische 

Brass,  not  a  practical  substitute 
for  type-metal,  9 

Brasses,  or  Brass-leads,  in  printing, 
strips  of  rolled  brass  used  as  leads 
in  many  newspaper  offices,  108 

Breitkopf,  John  Gpttlob  Imman- 
uel,  wide  reputation  of  German 
type-foundry  established  by,  91 

Brevier  (8-point),  illustration  of 
body  of,  29 ;  remarks  upon  dura- 
bility of,  36 ;  classed  as  a  regular 
body,  58;  capital  and  lower-case 
alphabets  of,  60,  61 ;  probable  ori- 
gin of  name,  66  (see  also  note); 
examples  of,  solid  and  leaded,  92, 
93;  standard  width  of,  114.  See 
also  Four-line  brevier 

Brilliant  (4-point),  capital  and  low- 
er-case alphabets  of,  60,  61;  a 
size  belonging  to  this  century,  68 ; 
examples  of,  solid  and  leaded, 
104,  105 

Brito,  John,  of  Bruges,  curious 
characters  of,  93 

Broad-face,  reasons  for  introduc- 
tion of,  116  (note),  225;  favored 
by  publishers  for  juvenile  school- 
books,  116  (note) ;  examples  of,  on 
10-point  body,  225,  226 ;  defects  of, 
226 

Bruce,  David,  head  of  the  noted 
type-founding  family,  emigrates 
to  New  York,  103;  with  his 
younger  brother,  begins  business 
as  printer,  103;  goes  to  London 
in  search  of  information  about 
stereotyping,  103 ;  returns  to  New 
York  and  adds  stereotyping  to 
his  business,  103 ;  his  valuable 
inventions,  103,  287 

Bruce,  David,  Jr.,  son  of  David, 
two  patents  granted  to,  24  (note 
3);  devises  force-pump  attach- 
ment to  mould,  26  (note) ;  invents 
a  type-casting  machine,  26  (note) ; 
other  improvements  of,  26  (note) ; 
studies  mechanics  of  type-casting 
at  an  early  age,  103:  his  inven- 
tions, 103 

Bruce,  David  Wolfe,  youngest  son 
of  George,  succeeds  his  father, 
103 ;  produces  an  unusually  com- 
plete series  of  penman  scripts, 
103 ;  retires  from  business,  103 ;  his 
successors,  103 


Bruce,  George,  brother  of  David, 
introduces  Columbian  as  a  text- 
type,  64;  becomes  his  brother's 
business  partner,  103  ;  an  enthu- 
siastic and  indefatigable  punch  - 
cutter,  103 ;  his  services  to  type- 
founding,  103;  first  practical 
attempt  at  the  establishment  of 
correct  proportions  of  types  in 
America  made  by,  146,  147 ;  his 
system  of  progression  of  type 
bodies,  147,  149 ;  regular  progres- 
sion of  type-bodies  in  system  of, 
illustrated,  181 

Bruges,  Caxton's  first  types  proba- 
bly made  at,  93 

Buell,  Abel,  early  American  type- 
founder, 102 

Bullock,  William,  inventor  of  the 
Bullock  press,  sketch  of,  278 

Buhner,  William,  eminent  English 
printer,  Shakespeare  Press  ably 
managed  by,  101 

Bur,  in  type-casting,  description  of, 
24  (see  also  notes  2  and  3) ;  impor- 
tance of  removal  of,  47 

Cambridge,  University  of,  rejects  a 
condition  imposed  by  the  French 
Academy  on  purchase  of  Gi'eek 
types,  96 

Canon  (48-point),  widely  known  as  a 
type  name,  57 ;  capital  and  lower- 
case alphabets  of,  60,  61 ;  descrip- 
tion and  origin  of  name  of,  62 

Capitals,  number  of  roman,  in  font, 
12;  variation  in  angles  of,  14,  15; 
imitations  of  Roman  lapidary  let- 
ters, 186;  when,  where,  and  by 
whom  first  made  in  type,  187;  in- 
adequate supply  of  large  sizes  of 
roman,  242 ;  need  for  three  widths 
of  roman,  246,  247 ;  the  frailty  of 
the  modern-cut  two-line,  248,  249 ; 
reasons  for  popularity  of  old- 
style,  249;  introduction  of  con- 
densed, 256;  use  of  condensed, 
for  book  titles  carried  to  excess, 
257 

Capitals,  Small,  first  appearance  of, 
187  ;  weakness  of,  236;  ineffective 
in  print,  236;  suggestion  of  an 
improvement  in,  236 

Caslon,  William,  of  London,  ablest 
type-founder  of  the  eighteenth 
vcentury,  and  his  successors,  98 

Caslon  face  or  style,  made  unpopu- 
lar by  an  arbitrary  standard,  118 ; 


Index 


385 


contrasted  with  the  modern-face, 
189;  peculiarities  of,  191,  192; 
modern-face  in  strong  contrast 
to,  192 

Catholicon  of  1460,  attributed  to 
Gutenberg.  79 

Caxton,  William,  the  first  English 
printer,  type  on  paragon  body 
favored  by,  63 ;  used  a  type  face 
similar  to  that  of  Mansion,  80; 
first  types  of,  show  Flemish  man- 
nerisms, 93;  reticent  concerning 
typography,  93;  peculiarities  of 
his  later  types,  93 ;  some  of  his 
books  printed  at  Paris  and  Rouen, 
93 ;  first  book  in  the  English  lan- 
guage printed  by,  297  (see  also 
note) ;  remarks  upon,  and  ex- 
ample of,  type  used  by,  297,  298 

Celtic,  remarks  upon,  325,  326,  327 ; 
examples  of,  326 

Cennini,  Bernard,  of  Florence,  on 
the  characters  of  his  books,  77 

Century  broad-face,  the,  made  by 
the  De  Vinne  Press,  377 ;  use  and 
characteristics  of,  377 

Century  face,  the,  introduction  of, 
231;  example  of,  376;  designed 
for  "The  Century  Magazine," 
376 ;  characteristics  of,  376 ;  meets 
with  general  approval,  376;  ad- 
vantage of,  376 

Chapel  text,  a  modern  variation  of 
the  old  church  text,  310 ;  remarks 
upon,  310,  311 ;  example  of,  311 

Characters,  uniformity  of,  11 ;  capi- 
tals, small  capitals^  and  lower- 
case, number  of,  in  font,  12 ;  of 
other  kinds,  12 ;  irregular  heights 
of,  13,  14;  one  mould  used  for  a 
font  of,  43 ;  should  please  when 
alone  and  in  composition,  49; 
number  of,  in  different  fonts,  166, 
167;  apportionment  of,  necessa- 
rily varied  for  different  languages, 
167,  168;  table  exhibiting  num- 
ber of,  in  a  font  of  roman  and 
italic,  169;  peculiar,  not  kept  in 
stock,  173 ;  weakness  of  the  mi- 
nor, 240 ;  vagueness  of,  never  tol- 
erated for  serious  books,  360; 
unwise  preference  of  first  Italian 
printers  for  large  roman,  369 

Charles  vn,  King  of  France,  sends 
Jenson  to  Mainz,  365 

Chiswick  Press,  the,  Basle  old-style 
of,  198, 199  (see  also  note  1) ;  sketch 
of  its  founder,  199 


Church,  Dr.  William,  of  America, 
British  patent  for  type-casting 
machine  received  by,  263 

Church  text,  a  graceful  ecclesiastic 
letter,  309;  examples  of,  310 

Clarendon,  lighter  faces  of,  pre- 
ferred as  emphasizing  letters 
over  small  capitals,  236;  exam- 
ples of,  331 

Clymer,  George,  inventor  of  Co- 
lumbian printing-press,  sketch  of, 
220 

Colson,  M.,  uses  iron  and  tin  in 
type-metal,  35  (note) 

Columbian  (16-point),  a  neglected 
body,  64 ;  first  made  in  text-type 
by  George  Bruce  of  New  York, 
64 ;  examples  of,  80,  81 

Composing-room,  wear  of  types  in, 
37 

Composite,  example  of,  305 ;  a  use- 
ful letter  for  legal  formularies, 
305,  306 

Composition,  rudely  cut  or  badly 
fitted  type  mars  effect  of,  49; 
various  methods  of  measuring, 
118,  120,  121;  weight  of  six-to- 
pica  leads  in,  177,  178 

Composition.    See  Type-setting 

Compositor,  advantages  of  news- 
paper work  over  book-work  to 
the,  118 

Compressed-face,  example  of,  216; 
preferred  in  France  and  Spanish 
America,  217 

Conner,  James,  a  type-founder  of 
New  York,  first  electrotype  ma- 
trix used  in  foundry  of,  18  (note) ; 
begins  business  as  stereotyper, 
103  ;  makes  first  American  stereo- 
type edition  of  New  Testament, 
103 ;  complete  series  of  Scotch- 
face  probably  first  shown  in 
America  by,  213 

Copley  type,  example  of  on  double 
great-primer  body,  250 

Copper,  an  occasional  constituent 
of  type-metal,  9,  32,  33 ;  is  not  a 
practical  substitute  for  type- 
metal,  9 ;  sulphate  of,  needed  in 
electrotyping,  18;  a  solution  of, 
used  in  copper-facing,  41 

Copper-facing,  the  invention  of,  41 ; 
description  of  the  process,  41 ;  ad- 
vantages of,  41 ;  differs  from  elec- 
trotyping, 41,  42 ;  expense  of,  42 

Cortelyou,  Peter  C.,  type-founder, 
sketch  of,  104 


386 


Index 


Cottrell,  Thomas,  an  English  type- 
founder, and  his  successors,  100 

Counter,  in  types,  illustration  of, 
29;  description  of,  30;  shallow,  36; 
should  be  sufficiently  deep,  48 

Counter -punch,  description  of,  15, 
16 ;  utility  of,  16 

Crapelet,  G.  A.,  a  distinguished 
French  printer  and  publisher, 
sketch  of,  276 

Current,  action  of  electric,  in  elec- 
trotyping,  18  ;  use  of  galvanic,  in 
copper-facing,  41 

Gushing  style,  or  Monotone,  intro- 
duction of,  231 ;  example  of,  250 

Cylinder  machine,  certain  types  not 
suited  for,  49,  50 

Dalton,  Michael,  an  American  type- 
founder, 104 

Day,  John,  an  eminent  English  ty- 
pographer, biographical  sketch 
of  ,94,  95 

Decree,  French,  of  1649,  274 

Delusions,  optical,  necessary  in  the 
designing  of  types,  14,  15 

Derriey,  Jacques  Charles,  a  French 
type-founder,  specimen  album  of, 
89 

Descenders,  types  with  long,  49, 
50 ;  types  with  short,  50 

DeVinne  Press,  introduction  of 
Century  face  for,  231 ;  Renner 
type  made  for,  368;  Century 
broad- face  made  for,  376 

DeVinne  type,  the,  examples  of, 
and  remarks  upon,  288,  289,  373 

Diamond  (4|-point),  popular  as  a 
type  name,  57;  is  classed  as  an 
irregular  body,  58 ;  the  capital  and 
lower-case  alphabets  of,  60,  61; 
first  made,  probably,  by  Voskens 
of  Amsterdam,  67 ;  selected  by 
Pickering  for  his  miniature  edi- 
tions of  the  classics,  68 ;  examples 
of,  102, 103;  standard  width  of,  114 

Dibdin,  Thomas  Frognall,  English 
bibliographer,  94>  ]0l 

Dickinson,  Samuel  Nelson,  a  noted 
American  type-founder,  104;  de- 
signs the  Scotch-face  type,  104, 
212 ;  first  specimen-book  of.  104  ; 
his  successors,  104 ;  sketch  of  his 
career,  201 

Didot,  Ambroise  Firmin-,  a  French 
printer  and  publisher,  224 

Didot,  Firmin-,  special  mixture  of 
type-metal  used  by,  35  (note); 


produces  practicable  stereotype 
plates,  97 :  biographical  sketch  of, 

Didot,  Francois,  first  of  a  long  line 
of  French  typographers,  203 

Didot,  Franc,ois-Ambroise,  a  noted 
French  printer  and  type-founder, 
point  system  of,  142,  143 ;  defect 
in  the  point  system  of,  145  (see 
also  note  1),  146  (see  also  note) ; 
size  of  point  devised  by,  155  (see 
also  note) ;  sketch  of  his  life,  215 

Didot,  Henri,  French  type-foun- 
der, invents  a  "polymatype" 
mould,  22,  24  (see  also  note  1); 
cuts  the  letters  for  a  font  called 
microscopique,  68,  322;  sketch 
of,  322 

Didot,  Hvacinthe,  brother  of  Am- 
broise Firmin-Didot,  277 

Didot,  Jules,  son  of  Pierre,  sketch 
of,  276 

Didot,  Pierre  Francois,  a  French 
type-founder,  paper-manufactu- 
rer, and  publisher,  279 

Diphthongs,  five  series  of,  240 

Display,  former  restrictions  con- 
cerning, 255,  256 

Distributor,  failure  of  first  prac- 
tical type-setting  machine  due  to 
lack  of,  265 ;  use  of,  in  connection 
with  type-setting  machine,  354 

Doric,  example  of,  324;  remarks 
upon,  325 

Double  english  (28-point),  capital 
and  lower-case  alphabets  of,  60, 
61 ;  example  of,  74 

Double  great-primer  (36-point), 
capital  and  lower-case  alphabets 
of,  60,  61 ;  example  of,  73 

Double  paragon  (40-point).  capital 
and  lower-case  alphabets  of,  60, 
61 ;  example  of,  72 

Double  pica  (24-point),  capital  and 
lower-case  alphabets  of,  60,  61 ; 


tal  and  lower-case  alphabets  of, 
60,  61 ;  known  in  England  as  dou- 
ble pica,  63 ;  examples  of,  76,  77 

Dressing-rod,  in  type-casting,  de- 
scription of,  24,  25 

Drive,  description  and  construc- 
tion of,  17;  conversion  of,  into 
matrix,  18 

Ducal  Printing  House.  See  Print- 
ing House,  Ducal 


Index 


387 


Dupre,  Jean,  early  French  printer, 
statement  of,  concerning  engrav- 
ing in  relief  on  copper,  84 

Diirer,  Albert,  German  painter  and 
engraver,  models  for  types  de- 
vised by,  11 ;  his  diagrams  for  the 
formation  of  letters,  12  (note) ; 
favors  the  roman  character,  91 

Electrotyping,  definition  of,  10; 
matrices  made  by,  18, 19 ;  experi- 
ments in,  by  Americans  and  oth- 
ers, 18  (note) ;  supplants  stereo- 
typing in  book- work,  40,  41 ;  dif- 
fers from  copper-facing,  41,  42 

Elzevir,  Daniel,  his  types  made  by 
Van  Dijk,  67,  68 

Elzevir,  Louis,  and  his  descen- 
dants, sketch  of,  200 

Elzevir  style,  the,  remarks  upon, 
199  (see  also  note  2),  200  (see  also 
note),  201;  examples  of,  200,  201; 
often  preferred  by  French  pub- 
lishers, 215 

Em,  or  Em  quadrat,  in  printing,  the 
American  unit  of  measure,  113; 
rules  as  to  fractions  of,  113  ;  its 
unfairness  as  a  measure,  117, 118 

Emerald,  an  English  text-type,  67 

En,  or  En  quadrat,  the  English  unit 
of  measure,  121 ;  a  change  pro- 
posed in  size  of,  164 

England,  distinction  between  two- 
line  and  double-bodied  types  not 
well  observed  in,  59 ;  the  roman 
form  of  letter  introduced  into,  by 
Pynson,  93;  black-letter  never 
wholly  in  disuse  in,  93 ;  supplied 
with  best  types  by  early  type- 
founders of  Rouen,  294 

English  (14-point),  classed  as  an  ir- 
regular body,  58;  capital  and 
lower-case  alphabets  of,  60,  61 ; 
one  of  the  oldest  of  bodies,  64; 
origin  of  name,  64;  examples  of, 
82,  83.  See  also  Double  english 

Engraver's  hair-line,  example  of, 
219 ;  supplanted  by  other  forms 
of  light-face,  220 

Engraver's  roman,  examples  of, 
289,  290 

Engraving,  of  the  early  printers, 
sometimes  done  on  brass,  copper, 
or  type-metal,  84 

Enschede\  Isaac,  establishes  the 
celebrated  Haarlem  type-foun- 
dry, 92 

Estienne  (or,  in  English,  Stephens), 


Henry,  eminent  French  printer, 
and  his  descendants,  320 

Excelsior  (3-point),  used  in  America 
for  music,  piece-fractions,  and 
borders  only,  68 ;  apparently  the 
same  as  the  English  minikin, 
68 

Expanded-face,  example  of,  227 

Face,  in  types,  description  of,  30 ; 
choice  of,  48, 49 ;  types  with  broad, 
50 ;  words  used  to  distinguish  va- 
rieties of,  113, 114 ;  illustration  of 
different  widths  of,  115;  Scotch- 
face  supplants  types  of  wider  and 
rounder,  116  (note);  thinner  in 
England  and  France  than  in 
America,  116  (note) ;  methods  ob- 
served in  naming,  182 ;  roman, 
in  most  request,  184 

Fat-face,  or  Title,  abroad  and  thick 
style  of  roman,  184;  Thome's 
form  of,  lasts  for  many  years, 
209 ;  example  of,  on  paragon  body, 
210;  characteristics  of,  281,  282; 
accepted  for  display  and  title 
lines,  282 ;  examples  of  early  and 
modern  styles  of,  282,  283;  for- 
merly sometimes  used  as  a  text- 
letter,  282  (see  also  note)-,  re- 
marks upon  italic,  283;  newer 
forms  of,  better  known  as  bold- 
face, 284 ;  remarks  upon  extended, 
286 ;  old-style  peculiarities  ap- 
plied to,  287;  example  of  old-style, 
287;  rejection  of  Thorne  and 
Didot  forms  of,  370 

Feather-edge,  in  type-casting,  27 

Feet,  in  types,  illustration  of,  29 ; 
description  of,  31 

Fell,  John,  English  scholar  and 
prelate,  presents  type-foundry  to 
Oxford  University,  96 

Fergusson,  James,  of  Scotland,  plan 
of,  for  securing  the  uniformity  of 
type  bodies,  132,  133 

Fifteenth  Century  Style,  remarks 
upon,  366,  367,  374,  375 

Figgins,  Vincent,  eminent  English 
type-founder,  his  achievements 
and  successors,  101 

Figures,  number  of,  in  font,  12; 
not  provided  for  all  fonts  of  large 
type,  166;  supei'ior,  furnished 
only  to  order,  174;  features  of 
old-style  and  modem-cut,  237; 
cast  on  the  n-set,  237 ;  made  on  a 
wider  set,  238;  difficulty  of  dis- 


388 


Index 


tinguishing  certain,  238,  239  (see 
also  note  1) 

Firm-face,  characteristics  and  ex- 
ample of,  229 

Fitting-up,  in  type-making,  defini- 
tion of,  10;  a  nice  operation,  18 

Five-line  pica  (60-pomt),  example 
of,  70 

Florence,  early  printers  of,  80 

Font,  uniformity  of  characters  in 
a  full,  11;  definition  of,  32;  all 
characters  of,  cast  in  one  mould, 
43;  unequal  heights  of  different 
characters  of  same,  46;  impor- 
tance of  harmony  of  characters 
in,  49 ;  dissimilarity  in  bodies  of 
the  same  name,  124,  125 ;  the  un- 
equal apportionment  of  charac- 
ters in,  165;  a  table  exhibiting 
number  of  characters  in  a  so- 
called  complete,  169 ;  scheme  for 
one  -  thousand  -  pound,  169  -171 ; 
piece  fractions  not  proper  part 
of,  174;  directions  for  using  a 
new,  174 ;  how  weight  of,  is  com- 
puted, 174, 175;  economy  of  large 
and  well-sorted,  175, 176 ;  capacity 
of,  largely  extended  by  use  of 
leads,  177 ;  three  series  of  charac- 
ters in  every  complete  roman, 
185 ;  addition  of  italic  to  roman, 
185 ;  number  and  cost  of  punches 
and  matrices  needed  for  full,  339; 
sizes  of,  for  plain  display  and 
ornamental  types,  340 

Foreman,  Andrew,  casts  first  types 
made  in  California,  104 

Forme,  Lettre  de,  French  bibliogra- 

Ehers'  name  for  pointed  black - 
Jtter,  293  (see  also  note  2) 
Founders.    See  Type-founders 
Four-line  brevier  (32-point),  62 
Four -line  pica  (48-point),  example 

of,  71 
Fournier  the  elder,  Le  Be  f  oundry 

bought  and  sustained  by,  87 
Fournier,  Pierre-Simon,  the  young- 
er, "  Manuel  Typographique  "  of, 
cited,  11  (note),  16  (note),  20  (note) ; 
his  estimate  of  the  production  of 
French  hand-caster,  26 ;  constitu- 
ents of  his  hard  and  soft  type- 
metal,  32  (note),  establishment  of 
type-foundry  of,  89 ;  invention  of 
point  system  of  type  bodies  by,  89 ; 
explanation  of  his  system  of  ty- 
pographic points  by,  133-138; 
remarks  on  point  system  of,  138 ; 


illustration  of  fixed  scale  of,  139 ; 
description  and  illustration  of 
implements  used  by,  140,  141  (see 
also  note) ;  advantages  promised 
by  system  of,  141;  object  of  his 
system,  141,  142;  concurrent  use 
of  the  point  systems  of  Didot 
and,  143,  144;  Didot's  eleven- 
point  body  wrongly  attributed 
to,  144;  some  Parisian  printers 
prefer  system  of,  146  (see  also 
note) ;  true  inventor  of  the  point 
system,  155;  condensed  form  of 
letter  introduced  to  French  print- 
ers by,  215 

Fox,  John,  English  author,  94 

Fractions,  number  of,  in  font,  12; 
usually  furnished  with  roman 
fonts  from  pearl  to  pica,  173; 
scheme  of,  173 ;  n-set  too  narrow 
for,  237,  238 ;  made  on  the  m-set, 
238 

Fractur,  early  admirers  of,  91 ;  ac- 
cepted as  the  standard  German 
text-type,  91;  is  not  favored  by 
Latin  races  or  by  English-speak- 
ing peoples,  91 ;  contrasted  with 
black-letter,  93 ;  the  only  serious 
rival  of  roman  in  general  litera- 
ture, 184 ;  never  selected  by  Eng- 
lish publishers,  296,  297 ;  example 
of,  303 ;  still  retains  its  old  popu- 
larity in  German v,  303  (see  also 
note)-,  preferred  f*or  newspapers 
and  ordinary  books,  304 ;  example 
of,  304 

France,  types  of  Jenson  copied  in 
books  printed  in,  80 ;  becomes  su- 
perior to  Italy  in  the  art  of  mak- 
ing books  attractive,  86 ;  coopera- 
tion of  eminent  publishers  and 
printers  with  designers  of,  86; 
improvement  of  type-founding 
in,  91 ;  early  English  printers  de- 
pendent on  those  of,  93 ;  printers 
of,  alter  the  italic  of  Aldus,  187 ; 
condensed  faces  popular  in,  215, 
216 ;  early  English  printers  favor 
type-founders  of,  297 

Francis  of  Bologna,  punches  for 
Aldus's  new  italic  cut  by,  80 

Franklin,  Benjamin,  an  American 
philosopher,  statesman,  and 
author,  purchases  in  Paris  com- 

Slete  equipment  for  a  type-foun- 
ry,    102,    155   (note);    with    his 
grandson,   begins   type-founding 
in  Philadelphia,  102,  155  (note); 


Index 


389 


his  birth  and  achievements,  195 ; 

laments  innovations  in  printing, 

360 

Franklin  face,  the,  example  of,  195 
French-face,  standard  of  thirteen 

ems  affects  use  of,  118 ;  specimen 

of  condensed,   215;    example    of 

eighteenth- century,  218 
Froben,  John,  of  Basle,  devises  a 

nonpareil  for  black-letter  edition 

of  Bible,  67 ;  remarks  upon  a  style 

occasionally  used  by,  250 
Fry,  Joseph,  English  type-founder, 

and  his  successors.  100 
Furniture,   in   printing,    made    to 

multiples  of  pica,  64,  145,  146 
Fust,  John  (with  Peter  Schceffer), 

earliest    book    bearing    printed 

date  published  by,  72 

Garamond,  Claude,  "father  of  let- 
ter-founders," 86;  his  characters 
much  admired,  86 ;  Greek  charac- 
ters of,  88 ;  supplies  Plantin  with 
punches  and  matrices,  92 ;  remod- 
els italic  capitals,  187 

Gauge,  for  type-bodies,  illustration 
of,  152 ;  for  height-to-paper,  illus- 
tration of,  153.  See  also  Type- 
gauge 

Ged,  William,  of  Edinburgh,  the  in- 
ventor of  a  process  of  stereotyp- 
ing, 97,  283 

German-text,  ornamented  letters  of 
"Theuerdank"  is  the  model  of 
modern,  91 ;  how  emphasis  or  dis- 
play is  secured  in,  186 ;  example 
of,  303 ;  retains  its  old  popularity 
in  Germany,  303  (see  also  note) ; 
used  in  ornamental  job-printing, 
304 ;  example  of  modern,  305 

Germany,  type-metal  of,  32  (note) ; 
use  of 'numerical  names  of  types 
limited  in,  55  (note) ;  readers  in, 
slow  to  accept  the  roman  charac- 
ter, 91 ;  adherence  to  pointed  let- 
ters in,  91 ;  mongrel  romans  in- 
troduced in,  367 

Golden  type,  the,  made  by  William 
Morris  after  Jenson  model,  206; 
example  of,  207;  causes  which 
impelled  Morris  to  design,  361 ; 
Morris  not  entirely  content  with, 
361.  See  also  Kelmscott  Press  and 
Morris,  William 

Gordon,  George  P.,  American  print- 
er and  inventor,  birth  of,  225 ; 
makes  improvements  in  small 

47 


printing-machines,  225 ;  patents 
machine  now  known  as  Gordon 
press,  225 

Gothic,  simplest  and  rudest  of  all 
styles,  184;  bibliographers'  name 
for  black-letter,  291  (see  also  note); 
round,  one  of  the  two  styles  se- 
lected by  early  printers,  293,  294 
(see  also  note  1) ;  revival  of  round, 
299;  is  a  misleading  name,  315; 
a  probable  origin  for  name,  315 ; 
its  English  names,  315;  remarks 
upon,  315,  316;  examples  of  five 
styles  of,  316 ;  remarks  upon  dif- 
ferent faces  of,  317;  old-style 
figures  of,  317;  remarks  upon  ex- 
tended, 317  (see  also  note) ;  five 
examples  of  condensed,  318;  ex- 
tra condensed  and  hair-line,  318 ; 
merit  of,  318;  defects  of,  319; 
usefulness  of  lining,  319,  320 ;  ex- 
amples of  different  styles  of,  320 ; 
examples  of  eccentric  styles  of, 
321 ;  inclined  forms  of,  321,  322 ; 
examples  of  condensed  italic,  322; 
used  by  early  Venetian  printers, 
369 

Granjon,  Robert,  French  punch- 
cutter,  boldness  and  originality 
of,  89;  first  punch-cutter  to  the 
Press  of  the  Propaganda,  90; 
famous  series  of  orientals  begun 
by,  90;  supplies  Plantin  with 
punches  and  matrices,  92 :  Plan- 
tin's  favorite  designer,  92;  re- 
marks upon  a  style  probably 
drawn  by,  250 

Great-primer  (18-point),  classed  as 
a  regular  body,  58;  capital  and 
lower-case  alphabets  of,  60,  61 ; 
probable  origin  of  its  name,  63 ; 
Rowe  Mores  and  Reed  on,  63  (see 
also  note) ;  called  text  in  Holland, 
Italy,  and  Spain,  63  (note) ;  exam- 
ples of,  solid  and  leaded,  78,  79; 
few  roman  faces  of  decided  char- 
acter made  on  bodies  larger  than, 
191.  See  also  Double  great-primer 

Greek,  first  volume  entirely  in, 
printed  at  Milan  in  1476,  85 

Greeley,  Horace,  American  journal- 
ist, author,  and  politician,  bio- 
graphical sketch  of,  213 

Gregory  ix,  Pope,  remarks  upon 
the  Decretals  of,  66 

Gregory  xiu,  Pope,  most  notable 
Italian  type-foundry,  established 
by  order  of,  90 


390 


Index 


Groove,  in  types,  illustration  of, 
29;  description  of,  31 

Grosse  batarde,  Flemish,  Caxton's 
capitals  retain  peculiarities  of, 
93 ;  first  book  in  the  English  lan- 
guage printed  in,  297  (see  also 
note) ;  first  used  by  Caxton  in 
England,  297;  not  favored  by 
English  readers,  297,  298 ;  revival 
of,  298;  example  of,  298.  Also 
once  known  as  Old  Flemish  black 
and  Secretary 

Gutenberg,  John,  of  Mentz,  named 
by  Zell,  Trithemius,  and  John 
Schoeffer  as  inventor  of  printing, 
78;  confirmed  by  tablets  to  his 
memory,  and  by  writings  of  fif- 
teenth century,  78,  79;  pointed 
and  round  gothic  faces  used  by. 
81;  two  bodies  of  english  made 
by,  81;  Bible-text  of,  91;  works 
attributed  to,  294  (note  1) 

Gutta-percha,  not  suitable  for 
types,  10 

Haarlem  Type-foundry,  the  foun- 
dries absorbed  by,  92 ;  largest  in 
Holland,  92;  celebrated  for  its 
orientals,  92.  See  also  Enschede, 
Isaac 

Hagar,  William,  an  American  type- 
founder, begins  business  in  New 
York,  103 

Hair-line,  in  types,  illustration  of, 
29;  description  of,  30;  in  pica, 
36 ;  in  pearl,  36 ;  should  have  a 
sloping  base,  48 ;  types  with  long 
and  sharp,  49,  50;  supported  by 
broad  base  in  modern  light-faced 
types,  51;  frailty  of  the  sharp, 
230 ;  should  have  a  visible  thick- 
ness, 230;  maintenance  of  the 
sharp,  252;  limitations  of,  253; 
need  for  thicker,  253  (see  also 
note) ;  delicacy  of,  in  large  types, 
258,  259 ;  Caslon  old-style  charac- 
terized by  firm,  268 

Hand-casters,  French  and  English, 
production  of,  per  day,  26 

Hand-casting,  earliest  method  of, 
25,  26 

Hand-press,  permanence  of,  358 

Hansard,  Thomas  Curson,  English 

•  printer  and  author,  on  irregular- 
ities of  type  bodies,  123;  early 
and  later  Caslon  type  bodies 
compared  by.  128  (see  also  note  2) ; 
"  Typograpnia  "  of,  cited,  133; 


on  the  book-printing  of  his  day, 
241  (note) ;  denotmces  fat-faced 
black,  301  (see  also  note  1) ;  ex- 
tract from  "Typographia"  of, 
333  (note) 

Harper,  James,  founder  of  print- 
ing and  publishing  firm  now 
known  as  Harper  &  Brothers,  226 

Hebrew,  first  book  entirely  in, 
printed  at  Soncino  in  1488,  85 

Henry  vui,  King  of  England,  or- 
ders prayer-book  printed  for  his 
subjects,  63  (note) 

Herbert,  John,  partner  of  Jenson, 
365 

Hoe,  Richard  March,  an  American 
printing-press  manufacturer,  223 

Holland,  numerical  names  of  types 
on  point  system  partially  adopted 
in,  56  (note) ;  English  demand  for 
punches  made  in,  97 

Houghton,  Henry  O.,  an  American 
printer  and  publisher,  228 ;  un- 
conventional book  titles  of,  244 
(note) 

Illuminator,  initials  and  borders 
added  to  early  printed  books  by 

Srofessional,  82 ;  certificate  of.  to 
ible  of  42  lines,  82 

Imperial  Printing  House.  See 
Printing  House,  Imperial 

Impression,  in  printing,  variations 
of,  for  different  types,  51,  52; 
effect  of,  upon  light-faced  and 
bold-faced  types,  52 

Initials,  added  by  the  professional 
illuminator  to  all  early  printed 
books,  82;  those  of  the  Psalter 
of  1457  printed  in  two  colors,  82 ; 
space  left  for,  in  some  early 
printed  books,  83 ;  those  of  Rat- 
dolt  probably  cut  in  high  relief 
on  metal,  84;  white  letters  on 
gray  groundwork,  devised  by 
early  printers,  84 ;  marked  merit 
of  those  used  by  early  French 
printers,  86 

Instruments,  measuring,  needed  in 
punch-cutting,  14 

Ionic,  example  of,  324;  remarks 
upon,  326 

Iron,  use  of,  in  type-metal,  33  (see 
also  note) 

Italian,  a  form  of  roman,  peculiar- 
ity of,  184 

Italic,  variations  in  font  of  14,  15; 
bad  fitting  not  infrequent  in  some 


Index 


391 


older  fonts  of,  45;  should  mate 
with  roman,  48;  that  of  Gara- 
mond  much  admired,  86 ;  Bodoni's 
peculiar  style  of,  90;  always  ac- 
companies full  font  of  roman, 
172 ;  a  simplified  style  of  discon- 
nected script,  184;  an  inseparable 
mate  of  roman,  185;  first  ex- 
hibited by  Aldus  in  his  octavo 
edition  of  Virgil,  187,  270;  the 
text  letter  in  many  books  of 
Aldus,  187 ;  modern  uses  of,  269 ; 
difficult  to  cut  and  cast,  269,  270 ; 
few  forms  of  faultless,  270  (see 
also  note) ;  remarks  on  original 
old-style,  270,  271  (see  also  note 
1);  rude  forms  of  old,  271  (see 
also  note  2) ;  the  Baskerville,  271 ; 
example  and  description  of  mod- 
ernized old-style,  272;  example 
of  Elzevir,  273 ;  peculiarities  and- 
illustration  of  French  old-style, 
274 ;  example  of  the  modern  bold- 
face, 275;  rarity  of  light -faced, 
275;  examples  of  modern  French 
light-face,  a  condensed  French- 
face,  and  an  eighteenth-century 
French-face,  276,  277;  different 
attitudes  of  American,  English, 
and  French  publishers  toward, 
277 ;  example  of  engraver's  hair- 
line, 278 ;  inclined  roman  a  French 
variety  of,  278;  remarks  upon, 
and  example  of,  law,  279;  de- 
scription of  elongated,  280;  re- 
marks upon  figures  and  small 
capitals  of,  280;  gothics  of  in- 
clined form  usually  named,  321 ; 
remarks  upon,  and  examples  of, 
gothic  condensed,  321,  322 
Italy,  numerical  names  of  types  on 
point  system  partially  adopted 
in,  56  (note);  valuable  improve- 
ments made  by  printers  of,  85; 
decadence  of  typography  in,  90 

Jackson,  Joseph,  a  noted  English 
type-founder,  sketch  of,  100,  101 ; 
wider  and  rounder  faces  of,  sup- 
planted by  Scotch -face,  116  (note) 

Jacobi,  Professor,  of  St.  Peters- 
burg, his  successful  electroty- 
ping  experiments,  18  (note) 

James,  Thomas,  an  English  type- 
founder, sketch  of,  97 

Jannon,  J..  a  printer  of  Sedan,  67 

Jaugeon,  Nicolas,  French  archaeol- 
ogist and  mechanician,  recom- 


mends  rules  and  diagrams  for  the 
designing  of  letters,  12  (note)  ;  re- 
ceives commission  from  Louis 
xiv  to  make  a  truly  "royal" 
type,  87  ;  new  types  of,  inferior 
in  legibility  and  durability,  87 

Javal,  Dr.,  French  optician,  re- 
marks of,  on  use  of  serifs,  250  ;  on 
the  readability  of  types,  260  ;  on 
the  evolution  of  typography,  334 

Jenson,  Nicolas,  of  Venice,  on  the 
cutting  and  casting  of  his  types, 
77,  his  types  copied  in  books 
printed  in  France,  80;  roman  and 
round  gothic  made  by,  81  ;  roman 
perfected  by,  in  1471,  85  ;  romans 
modeled  after  designs  of,  88; 
capital  and  lower-case  letters  of, 
model  for  type-founders,  187  ; 
books  in  round  gothic  printed  by, 
294  (note  1)  ;  biographical  sketch 
of,  365 

Jen  son  type,  the,  remarks  upon, 
364  ;  example  of,  365 

Jet,  in  type-casting,  description  of, 
24  (see  also  note  3) 

John  and  Windelin  of  Speyer,  re- 
marks upon  types  used  and  books 
printed  by,  366,  367,  368 

John  of  Cologne,  associated  with 
Jenson,  365 

John  of  Westphalia,  begins  print- 
ing at  Alost  in  1474,  80 

Johnson,  Lawrence,  a  printer,  es- 
tablishes stereotype  foundry  at 
Philadelphia,  102;  his  successors, 
102;  Cincinnati  branch  foundry 
established  by,  105 

Johnson,  William,  invents  a  type- 
casting machine,  26  (note) 

Jordan,  J.  C.,  successful  electro- 
typing  experiments  of,  18  (note) 


, 
Juiiius,  Francis,  punches  and  mat- 

rices collected  by,  96 
Justification,    in    typography,   ad- 
for point  sy 


in,  160;  difficulties  of,  160,   161: 
spaces  on  point  sets  an  aid  to,  164 

Kelmscott  Press,  the,  establishment 

of,  207  ;  example  of  Golden  type 

composed  at,  207 
Kern,  in  types,  description  of,  30, 

31  ;  should  be  well  supported,  48  ; 

unavoidable  in  italic,  269,  270 
Koster,  Laurens,  the  legends  of  a 

Dutch  invention  by,  79  ;  bad  type- 

founding  of,  92 


392 


Index 


Lead,  a  constituent  of  type-metal, 
9,  32  (see  also  note) 

Leads,  in  printing,  graduated  to 
divisions  of  pica,  64,  145,  146; 
difference  in  appearance  of  type 
produced  by  use  of,  106,  107;  il- 
lustration of  various  thicknesses 
of,  107 ;  high  and  low,  107 ;  usu- 
ally cast  m  a  mould,  107,  108 ; 
some  made  by  rolling-machines, 
108;  made  also  of  rolled  brass, 
108 ;,  capacity  of  a  font  extended 
by  use  of,  177 ;  space  occupied  by 
one  pound.  177;  how  to  find  re- 
quired weight  of,  177,  178  (see 
also  notes) 

Leavenworth,  William,  adapts  the 
pantograph  to  the  manufacture 
of  wood  types,  348 

Le  Be,  Guillaume,  succeeds  Gara- 
mond  as  leading  French  type- 
founder, 87;  his  descendants, 
87 

Letters,  full-bodied,  12 ;  ascending, 
descending,  and  short,  13  ;  varia- 
tion in  face  heights  of,  14 ;  deter- 
mination of  proportions  of,  15 
use  of  model,  in  electrotyping,  18 
kerned,  24,  32 ;  illuminated  ini 
tial,  added  to  early  printed  books 
82 ;  fashion  of  making  white,  84 
adherence  of  Germans  to  pointed 
91 ;  lean  and  condensed,  114 ;  va 
rious  sizes  of,  defined,  116  (see 
also  note) ;  superior,  furnished 
only  to  order,  174 ;  description  of 
swash,  187;  specimens  of  six  series 
of  two-line,  251 ;  examples  of  con- 
densed two-line,  256,  258 ;  decline 
in  demand  for  highly  ornamented, 
359;  demand  for  fantastic,  360; 
Morris's  aversion  to  classic,  and 
leaning  to  Teutonic  forms  of. 
361 ;  merit  of  the  Kelmscott,  370 

Lettre  de  forme,  Lettre  de  somme. 
See  Forme,  Somme 

Light-face,  example  of.  222;  char- 
acteristics and  example  of  mod- 
ern French,  224;  objections  to, 
228;  many  sizes  needed  to  com- 
plete series  of,  246 

Lindsay,  James,  type-founder,  103 ; 
specimen  of  condensed  Scotch- 
face  cut  by,  214 

Linotype  (or  Mergenthaler)  ma- 
chine, success  of,  largely  due  to 
accuracy  of  matrices,  353';  its  con- 
struction and  operation,  354-356 


Literae  florentes.  Ratdolt's  name 
for  decorative  initials,  83 

Long-primer  (10-point),  illusti*ation 
of  body  of,  29 ;  classed  as  a  regu- 
lar body,  58:  capital  and  lower- 
case alphabets  of,  60,  61;  origin 
of  name,  65  (see  also  note  2) ; 
preferred  for  duodecimos,  66; 
examples  of,  solid  and  leaded,  88, 
89;  standard  width  of,  114;  illus- 
tration of  irregularities  of  mea- 
surement in  four  faces  of,  119 

Lothian,  George  B.,  establishes  a 
type-foundry  at  Pittsburgh,  Pa., 
102;  his  Greek  faces  much  ad- 
mired, 103 

Lothian,  Robert,  of  Scotland,  fa- 
ther of  G.  B.  Lothian,  begins  a 
type-foundry  in  New  York,  102 

Louis  xiv,  King  of  France,  com- 
missions Jaugeoii  to  make  a 
"royal"  type,  87 

Lower-case, 'roman,  as  a  name  for 
small  letters,  technical  and  not 
generally  understood,  185  (see 
also  note) ;  an  imitation  of  char- 
acters of  early  French  and  Italian 
copyists,  186 ;  when,  where,  and 
by  whom  first  made,  187 

Lyman,  Nathan,  American  type- 
founder, 104 

Lyons,  early  founders  of,  supply 
printers  of  all  countries  witii 
punches,  matrices,  and  fonts  of 
type,  86,  87 

MacFarland  face,  the,  example  of, 
and  remarks  upon,  374,  375 

Machine,  Cylinder,  Type-casting, 
Type-revolving.  See  Cylinder, 
Type-casting,  Type-revolving 

MacKellar,  Thomas,  American 
printer,  sketch  of,  229 

Mainz.     See  Mentz 

Making-ready,  omission  of,  a  cause 
of  wear  in  types,  37,  38;  the 
modern  style  of,  38;  developed 
by  Joseph  Alexander  Adams,  219 

Mansion,  Colard,  printer,  uses  types 
similar  to  those  of  Jenson,  80; 
curious  characters  of,  93  ;  Blades 
and  Madden  on  Caxton's  busi- 
ness relations  with,  297  (note) 

Manutius,  Aldus,  Italian  printer, 
complains  of  piracy  of  his  designs. 
80 ;  small  capitals  and  italic  first 
made  for,  and  shown  by,  187; 
italic  the  text-letter  of  many  of 


Index 


393 


his  books,  187 ;  first  italic  exhib- 
ited in  his  Virgil  of  1501,  187, 
270 

Mappa,  Adam  G.,  first  type-founder 
in  New  York,  102 

Martens,  Thierry,  types  of,  92 

Martin,  Robert  and  William,  noted 
English  type-founders,  sketch  of, 
101 

Matrix,  description  and  construc- 
tion of,  17;  conversion  of  drive 
into,  18;  also  made  by  electro- 
typing,  18  (see  also  note),  19;  im- 
presses the  fluid  metal,  26;  bad 
fitting-up  of,  45,  46;  frequently 
sold  at  close  of  fifteenth  century, 
80 ;  liable  to  imperceptible  dis- 
placement, 125 

Mayeur,  Gustave,  revival  of  the 
seventeenth-century,  or  Elzevir, 
style  by,  199  (see  also  note  2), 
200  (see  also  note);  Didot  style 
revived  by,  219 

Mecom,  Benjamin,  printer,  nephew 
of  Franklin,  attempts  stereotyp- 
ing, 102 

Mentz,  or  Mainz,  Bible  of  42  lines 
illuminated  at,  74 ;  the  Bible  of  36 
lines  believed  to  have  been  print- 
ed at.  74 ;  type-making  and  print- 
ing practised  at,  before  1460,  75 

Meridian  (44-point),  62 

Microscopique  (2-point — Didot),  cut 
by  Henri  Didot,  68,  322 

Milan,  first  volume  in  Greek  printed 
at,  in  1476,  85 

Miller,  William,  a  Scottish  type- 
founder, and  his  successors,  101 

Minikin.     See  Excelsior 

Minion  (7-point),  illustration  of 
body  of,  29 ;  classed  as  an  irregu- 
lar body,  58, 66  ;  capital  andlower- 
case  alphabets  of,  60,  61 ;  origin 
of  its  name,  66 ;  examples  of,  94, 
95 ;  standard  width  of,  114 

Minionette  (6J-point),  largely  used 
in  France  for  combination  bor- 
ders, 66;  passing  out  of  use  in 
the  United  States,  66,  67 ;  equiva- 
lent of  English  emerald,  67 

Minuscule,  Dr.  Taylor's  name  for 
lower-case  letters,  185  (note) ;  the 
Caroline,  186 

Missal,  the  German  name  of  canon 
type,  62 

Mitchel,  William  Haslett,  Ameri- 
can inventor  of  a  practical  type- 
setting machine,  265 


Mitchelsou,  David,  a  London  die- 
sinker,  begins  a  type-foundry  at 
Boston,  102 

Mittel.     See  English 

Modern-face,  the  prevailing  style 
of  roman  type,  188;  characteris- 
tics of,  188,  189,  190,  192,  193 

Monotone.    See  Gushing 

Monotype,  Lanston,  description  of, 
and  method  of  operation,  357 

Mores,  Edward  Rowe,  an  English 
antiquary  and  writer  on  typog- 
raphy, explanation  of  ' '  the  Pie  ' ' 
by,  64,  65 ;  purchases  contents  of 
James  foundry,  97 

Morris,  William,  English  poet,  ar- 
tist, and  typographer,  devises 
a  "Golden"  type,  based  on  Jen- 
son's  great-primer  roman,  206, 
361 ;  contributes  to  this  work  an 
example  of  it,  text  written  by 
himself,  208;  favors  quaintness 
and  medieval  methods,  361;  his 
aversion  to  classic,  and  leaning 
to  Teutonic  forms,  361 ;  issues  a 
new  form  of  black-letter,  361; 
difficulties  encountered  by,  in  de- 
signing the  latter,  361,  362;  re- 
marks upon  his  new  Troy  type, 
362 ;  the  reading  world  indebted 
to,  for  a  really  masculine  style, 
362;  types  of,  rejected  by  pub- 
lishers as  unfit  for  ordinary  books, 
368 ;  marked  influence  exerted  by 
types  of,  368,  370 ;  his  admirable 
methods,  370.  See  also  Kelmscott 

Motteroz,  Claude,  French  printer, 
sketch  of,  232 

Motteroz  face,  the,  characteristics 
of,  231;  adopted  by  Municipal 
Council  of  Paris  for  its  publica- 
tions, 232 ;  example  of,  232,  233 ; 
contrasted  with  the  Didot  style, 
233 

Mould,  use  of,  in  type -making,  9, 
10;  each  matrix  must  be  accurate- 
ly fitted  to,  17 ;  all  matrices  of  a 
font  adjusted  to  a  single,  19; 
trueness  of,  imperative,  19;  de- 
scription and  construction  of,  19, 
20  (see  also  note),  21;  efforts  to 
cast  many  types  at  one  opera- 
tion from  a  multiple,  22;  Didot 's, 
not  adopted  by  other  founders, 
24 ;  its  use  in  the  process  of  hand- 
casting,  25,  26;  in  stereotyping, 
39;  its  set  altered  with  almost 
every  change  of  matrix,  45 ;  sim- 


394 


Index 


pie  form  of,  used  by  early  print- 
ers, 81 ;  liability  of,  to  swell  and 
wear,  125 

Moulding,  papier-mache  method  of. 
injurious  to  types,  37 

Mould-making,  definition  of,  10 

Moxon,  Joseph,  first  English  writer 
on  typography,  scheme  of,  for  de- 
signing letters,  12  (note),  13 ;  his 
"Mechanick  Exercises  ''  cited,  20 
(note) ;  his  moulds  made  of  iron, 
20  (note) ;  his  estimate  of  pro- 
duction of  English  hand-caster, 
26;  statement  of,  as  to  use  of 
iron  in  type-metal,  33  (see  also 
note);  bodies  now  called  irregu- 
lar unknown  to,  58 ;  his  works 
on  typography,  96 ;  his  geometri- 
cal formulae  declared  impractica- 
ble. 96;  names  ten  bodies  most 
used  in  England,  126,  127;  rude 
and  uncouth  old-style  italic  of, 
271  (note  2) 

Munsell,  Joel,  publisher  and  print- 
er, sketch  of,  214 

Napoleon  i,  Emperor  of  the  French, 
despoils  printing-offices  of  Propa- 
ganda at  Rome  and  of  Medicis  at 
Florence,  88 

National  (or  Royal  or  Imperial) 
Printing  House.  See  Printing 
House,  National 

Neck,  or  Beard,  in  types,  illustra- 
tion of,  29 ;  description  of.  30 

Netherlands,  early  printers  of,  use 
type  face  similar  to  that  of  Jen- 
son,  80 :  four  bodies  of  english 
made  by  unknown  early  printer 
of,  81;  improvement  of  type- 
founding  in,  91 

Newton,  Dr.,  of  New  York,  invents 
copper-facing,  41 

Nick,  in  types,  illustration  of,  29; 
description  of,  31;  it  should  be 
clearly  defined  and  different  from 
other  faces  of  same  body,  48 

Nonpareil  (6-point),  illustration  of 
body  of,  29;  widely  known  as 
type  name,  57 ;  classed  as  a  regu- 
lar body,  58 ;  capital  and  lower- 
case alphabets  of,  60,  61;  most 
used  of  the  small  bodies,  67 ;  in- 
vention and  earliest  uses  of,  67 ; 
adjudged  a  marvel  of  letter-cut- 
ting, 67 ;  examples  of,  96,  97 ;  ad- 
vertisements in,  106;  standard 
width  of.  114 


Non-plus-ultra  (2-point),  cast  on 
4-point  body,  68 

Old  black,  revival  of  lettre  de 
somme,  or  round  gothic,  under 
name  of,  299;  example  of,  299; 
characteristics  and  uses  of,  299 

Old  english,  adheres  closely  to  the 
models  of  first  printers,  93 ;  gen- 
erally accepted  name  of  pointed 
black-letter,  294;  characteristics 
and  uses  of,  294,  295;  example 
of,  295;  preferred  by  Pickering, 
295 ;  commended  by  Moxon,  295, 
296;  more  in  fashion  now  than 
formerly,  296;  its  abbreviations 
used  in  facsimile  reprints,  296 

Old  Flemish  black.  See  Grosse 
bdtarde 

Old  Roman,  characteristics  of,  and 
remarks  upon,  378 

Old-style,  the  Caslon,  98,  100 ;  is  a 
subdivision  of  the  roman  form 
of  type,  188;  characteristics  of, 
188,  191;  example  of,  189;  de- 
fects of,  192;  features  of  mod- 
ernized, 193,  194,  195 ;  example  of 
large-faced,  196;  example  and 
characteristics  of  original,  197; 
the  Basle,  or  early-Italian,  de- 
scribed and  illustrated,  198,  199 
(see  also  note  1) ;  the  Elzevir,  or 
seventeenth-century,  examples 
and  peculiarities  of,  199  (see  also 
note  2),  200  (see  also  note),  201 ; 
Ronaldson,  example  of,  202 ; 
French,  example  of,  203;  con- 
densed, preferred  by  French 
printers  for  dictionaries  and  cata- 
logues, 204 ;  Portuguese,  example 
of,  204,  206;  condensed  types 
made  on  model  of,  266,  267,  268 : 
example  of  extra  condensed,  268; 
objectionable  forms  of  condensed 
and  extra  condensed,  288 

Orientals,  older  forms  of,  have  one 
series  of  characters  only,  185 

Overlaying,  present  method  of,  de- 
veloped in  United  States,  219. 
See  Adams,  Joseph  Alexander 

Oxford,  early  type-founders  at,  96 

Pantograph,  adaptation  of,  to  the 

manufacture  of  wood  types,  348 ; 

description   and  illustration  of, 

348-350 
Paper,  varieties  of,  destructive  to 

types,  38 


Index 


395 


Paragon  (20-point),  widely  known 
as  a  type  name,  57;  seldom  se- 
lected now  by  American  or  Eng- 
lish founders,  63 ;  favored  by 
Caxton  and  the  printer  of  the 
Bible  of  42  lines,  63  ;  called  text 
in  Germany,  63;  suitable  book- 
types  not  made  upon  this  body, 
108.  See  also  Double  paragon 

Paris,  the  early  founders  of,  supply 
printers  of  all  countries  with 
punches,  matrices,  and  fonts,  86, 
87;  notable  founders  of ,  87;  books 
printed  at,  for  Caxton  and  his 
successors,  93 ;  return  of  Jenson 
to,  365;  thick-stemmed  roman 
types  early  made  and  used  at, 
370 

Parker,  Matthew,  an  English  arch- 
bishop and  early  patron  of  print- 
ing, 94 

Pearl  (5-point),  widely  used  as  type 
name,  57 ;  classed  as  a  regular 
body,  58 :  capital  and  lower-case 
alphabets  of,  60,  61;  is  used  for 
pocket  editions  of  Bible,  prayer- 
books,  and  small  manuals,  67; 
made  famous  by  Jannon  in  his 
so-called  "Diamond"  editions, 
67 ;  examples  of,  solid  and  leaded, 
100,  101;  standard  width  of,  114 

Petrarch  (Francesco  Petrarca), 
Italian  poet,  italic  of  Aldus  mod- 
eled on  handwriting  of,  187  (see 
also  note) 

Phonotype,  its  needed  new  charac- 
ters not  in  general  use,  235 

Pica  (12-point),  spaces  of,  illustrat- 
ed, 29;  illustration  of  body  of, 
29 ;  about  one  sixth  of  an  inch  in 
thickness  of  body,  31;  all  sizes 
above  canon  called  by  multiples 
of,  57 ;  classed  as  a  regular  body, 
58 ;  capital  and  lower-case  alpha- 
bets of,  60,  61;  a  favorite  body 
for  octavos,  64 ;  the  standard  unit 
for  determining  sizes,  64;  origin 
of  name,  64 ;  Rowe  Mores  on,  64, 
65  (see  also  note  1) ;  examples  of, 
solid  and  leaded,  84,  85;  a  book 
in,  106:  standard  width  of,  114; 
example  and  defects  of  an  early 
form  of  condensed,  262,  263;  il- 
lustration and  characteristics  of  a 
later  form  of,  263 ;  early  faces  of, 
too  condensed,  263,  264;  example 
of,  and  remarks  upon,  extra  con- 
densed, 265.  See  also  Double  pica, 


Four-line  pica,  Five-line  pica,  Six- 
line  pica 

Pica,  Friars  de,  origin  of  name,  65 

Pickering,  William,  English  pub- 
lisher, selects  diamond  type  for  his 
miniature  editions  of  the  classics. 
68 ;  requests  Whittingham  to  re- 
print a  diary  in  old-style  letter. 
98 ;  unconventional  book  titles  of, 
244  (note) ;  uses  pointed  black- 
letter  for  his  Victorian  edition  of 
Book  of  Common  Prayer,  295 

Pie,  old  English  form  of  the  Latin 
name  Pica,  64,  65 

Pin-mark,  in  types,  illustration  of, 
29 ;  description  of,  31 

Plane,  in  type- casting,  use  of,  25 

Plantin,  Christopher,  of  Antwerp, 
orientals  cut  by  Le  Be  for,  87: 
newer  styles  of,  92 ;  various  type- 
founders work  for,  92;  Gran j  on 
his  favorite  designer,  92;  his 
Flemish  characters,  92 

Plates,  zinc  and  copper,  action  of 
electric  current  on,  18,  19 

Poetic-face,  a  condensed  old-style 
preferred  in  France  for  poetry, 
204;  example  of,  205;  .great  popu- 
larity of,  216 

Point,  in  typography,  the  Ameri- 
can, 154,  155  (see  also  note) ;  the 
Fournier,  155  (see  also  note) ;  the 
Didpt,  155;  illustration  of  type 
bodies  based  on  American,  156 

Points  of  punctuation,  number  of, 
in  font,  12;  objections  to  italic, 
239 ;  a  real  need  for  inclined,  239 

Point  system,  new  names  of  types 
according  to.  54,  55;  is  partially 
adopted  in  Italy,  Spain,  and  Hol- 
land, 56  (note)  ;  Fournier 's  expla- 
nation of  his,  133-138 ;  advantages 
promised  by,  141 ;  adopted  by 
French  type-founders,  141 ;  Fran- 
Qois-Ambroise  Didot  devises  a 
new,  142,  143;  concurrent  use  of 
Fournier's  and  of  Didot's,  143, 
144  (see  also  note  1) ;  preference 
of  the  Parisian  typographers  for 
Fournier's,  146  (see  silsonote);  the 
American,  149,  150;  adoption  of 
the  latter  by  United  States  Type 
Founders'  Association,  150 ;  basis 
of  the  American,  152  (see  also 
note) ;  comparison  of  Fournier's 
with  the  American,  155  (note) ; 
the  American,  adopted  by  many 
founders,  159 ;  too  much  expected 


396 


Index 


from,  159;  helpful  in  algebraic 
work,  161 ;  applied  to  the  set,  or 
width,  of  types,  161,  162 ;  difficul- 
ties of  such  application,  162,  163; 
also  applied  to  spaces,  163,  164; 
irregular  progression  of  type 
bodies  in  American,  illustrated, 
181;  type  bodies  clearly  defined 
by  numerical  names  in,  182 

Polyglot,  London,  of  1657,  fourth 
great  Bible  of  the  world,  95 

Polymatype.  See  Didot.  Henri,  and 
Pouchee,  Louis  John 

Pouchee,  Louis  John,  type-founder, 
adopts  Didot's  polymatype  meth- 
od, 102 

Presses,  Cylinder,  maybe  injurious 
to  types,  37.  See  also  Cylinder. 

Presswork,  is  marred  by  rudely  cut 
or  badly  fitted  type,  49;  small 
types  produce  the  effect  of  weak- 
ness in,  230 ;  abandonment  of  old 
methods  of,  253 

Price  lists.     See  under  Tables 

Print,  date  of  oldest  verified,  69 

Printers,  bodies  now  called  irregu- 
lar unknown  to  early  English, 
58;  early,  engjraved  full-page  bor- 
ders and  white  initials  on  gray 
groundwork,  84 ;  early  Italian, 
made  valuable  improvements  in 
typography,  85;  early  French, 
preferred  the  black-letter  char- 
acter, 86;  improvements  in  typog- 
raphy made  by  French,  89 ;  early 
types  of  Dutch  founders  pre- 
ferred by  London,  96;  early, 
worked  to  great  disadvantage, 
106;  a  rude  adjustable  mould 
used  for  casting  types  by  first,  126 

Printing,  weak  and  misty  style  of, 
254;  demand  for  quaintness  in 
decorative,  360;  objections  to 
new  fashions  in,  360;  Morris's  re- 
ported statement  on  the  degrada- 
tion of,  361 

Printing  House,  Ducal,  of  Parma, 
Bodoni  invited  to  reconstruct  and 
manage,  90 

Printing  House,  the  Imperial,  of 
Vienna,  celebrated  for  its  large 
collection  of  foreign  types,  91 

Printing  House,  National  (or  Royal 
or  Imperial),  Le  Be  cuts  orien- 
tals for,  87 ;  notable  Paris  type- 
founders dwarfed  by  growth  of, 
87 ;  its  punch- cutter  Luc6  disfig- 
ures the  roman  character,  88; 


Prmtini 


high  reputation  of,  88;  its  typo- 
graphical riches,  88,  89 
mting,  type,  date  of  oldest,  70 ; 
practised  at  Mentz  before  1460,  75 

Printing-types.     See  Types 

Propaganda,  Press  of  the,  punches 
of,  90 ;  Bodoni  manager  of,  90 

Prototype,  measuring  instrument 
used  by  Fournier,  140,  141,  143 

Psalter  of  1457,  earliest  book  bear- 
ing a  printed  date,  72 ;  its  types 
cast  on  bodies  of  double  paragon 
and  double  great-primer,  73;  deco- 
rated with  red  ink  and  large  ini- 
tials, 73;  imprint  of,  75;  contains 
great  initials  in  two  colors,  82; 
printed  by  Fust  and  Schoeffer, 
293  (note  2) 

Punch,  description  and  construc- 
tion of,  16,  17 ;  impresses  the  ma- 
trix, 26 ;  frequently  sold  at  close 
of  fifteenth  century,  80;  cut  on 
steel  for  roman  and  italic,  339, 340 

Punch-cutter,  the  modern,  not  fet- 
tered by  arbitrary  rules,  11,  12 
(note) ;  how  he  begins  his  work, 
13-15;  difficulties  of  the  early, 
100 ;  different  aims  of  the  old  and 
the  modern,  190  (see  also  note) 

Punch-cutters,  in  American  type- 
foundries  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, 289,  290 

Punch-cutting,  description  of,  10- 
17;  secrets  of,  jealously  guarded, 
100 

Punch-cutting  machine,  the  Ben- 
ton,  features  of  the  pantograph 
successfully  incorporated  in,  350 ; 
method  of  working,  350,  352,  353 ; 
illustration  of,  351 ;  superiority 
of  punches  produced  by,  353 

Pynson,  Richard,  English  printer, 
introduces  into  England  the  ro- 
man form  of  letter,  93 ;  many  of 
his  punches  and  types  brought 
from  Rouen,  93 ;  Moxon's  model 
letters  show  no  important  depart- 
ure from  those  used  by,  300 

Quotation  marks,  superiority  of 
French  over  English,  203,  204,  239 
(see  also  note  2) 

Ratdolt,  Erhard,  of  Venice,  proba- 
bly the  first  to  make  true  deco- 
rative initials,  83 ;  remarks  upon 
the  latter,  84 ;  accepts  the  model 
introduced  by  Jenson,  367 


Index 


397 


Readers,  needs  of,  not  intelligently 
regarded  by  type-founders,  253, 
254 ;  rights  of,  deserve  more  con- 
sideration, 254 

Reed,  Sir  Charles,  an  English  type- 
founder, 100 

Reed,  Talbot  Baines,  on  the  early 
use  of  great-primer  for  text  of  Bi- 
bles and  prayer-books,  63  (note) ; 
possible  origin  of  name  bourgeois 
suggested  by,  66 ;  remarks  of,  on 
breviaries,  66  (note) ;  on  the  use 
of  black-letter  in  England,  93; 
011  Day's  excellence  as  a  type- 
founder, 94 ;  on  the  Oxford  Uni- 
versity Press,  96  ;  on  old  English 
foundries,  97 ;  the  author's  in- 
debtedness to,  100;  on  theachieve- 
ments  of  the  type-founder  Fig- 
gins,  101 ;  on  the  Miller  &  Richard 
foundry,  101 

References,  number  of,  in  font,  12 

Reglet,  in  printing,  145,  146 

Renner,  Franz,  of  Venice,  accepts 
type  standard  introduced  by  Jen- 
son,  367;  devises  new  style  for 
his  edition  of  the  "  Quadragesi- 
male,"  368;  biographical  sketch 
of,  369 

Renner  type,  the,  designed  after 
style  of  Franz  Renner,  368;  its 
characteristics,  368 ;  example  of, 
369 

Riverside  face,  example  and  char- 
acteristics of,  228,  229 ;  introduc- 
tion of,  a  protest  against  effemi- 
nacy of  modern  types,  231 

Roman,  variations  in  a  font  of,  14, 
15 ;  one  face  of  italic  used  with 
two  or  more  faces  of,  48;  first 
founded  by  Sweinheym  and  Pan- 
nartz  in  1465,  85;  made  perfect 
by  Jenson  in  1471,  85;  Tory 
endeavors  to  extend  the  use  of, 
86;  Garamond's  form  of  much 
admired,  86;  Bodoni's  peculiar 
style  of,  90 ;  lack  of  harmonious 
series  of  faces  in,  108,  109;  full 
font  of,  always  accompanied  with 
italic,  172 ;  characters  omitted  in 
regular  font  of,  172;  preferred 
as  text-letter  by  the  English- 
speaking  peoples  and  the  Latin 
races,  184;  largely  used  in  Ger- 
many for  scientific  books,  184, 
185;  every  complete  font  of,  be- 
tween pearl  and  great-primer  pro- 
vided with  three  series  of  char- 


acters,  185  (see  also  note) ;  italic 
an  inseparable  mate  of,  185 ;  ad- 
dition of  italic  to  font  of,  185; 
five  correlated  series  of  the  al- 
phabet in,  186;  greatest  merit 
of,  186;  capitals  of,  imitations 
of  Roman  lapidary  letters,  186; 
subdivided  into  two  classes,  188 ; 
an  object  of  experiment  with 
type-founders  for  nearly  four 
centuries,  191 ;  defects  of,  most 
noticeable  in  the  smaller  sizes, 
230 ;  little  change  in  general  form 
of,  234,  235 ;  rarity  of  large  sizes 
of,  241,  242 ;  example  of  inclined, 
278 ;  called  white-letter  to  distin- 
guish it  from  black-letter,  292, 
293  ;  various  styles  of,  for  serious 
books,  360 ;  first  made  at  Subiaco, 
367;  uncouth  shapes  of,  not  tol- 
erated in  fifteenth  century,  367 ; 
model  of,  selected  by  Renner,  369 

Romische  Antiqua  and  Versalien, 
illustration  of  capitals  of,  372; 
remarks  upon,  373,  374,  375;  made 
and  sold  in  New  York  under  the 
name  of  Bradford  face,  373 

Ronaldson,  James,  partner  of  Bin- 
ny,  102;  receives  loan  of  type- 
founding  apparatus  bought  by 
Franklin,  155  (note) ;  biographi- 
cal sketch  of,  202 

Rouen,  early  founders  of,  supply 
printers  of  all  countries,  86,  87; 
books  printed  at,  for  Caxton  and 
his  successors,  93 ;  early  English 
printers  import  their  punches 
and  types  from,  93,  294 

Round-face,  examples  of,  on  pica  and 
long-primer  bodies,  220,  221 ;  pre- 
vailing fancy  for,  221;  effective 
in  leaded  composition  with  broad 
margins,  221 

Ruby.     See  Agate 

Rules,  brass,  in  printing,  basis  for 
sizes  of,  64,  145,  146 

Runic,  examples  of,  326,  327 

Sanlecque,  Jacques  de,  French  type- 
founder, 87 

Satanick  type,  example  of,  and  re- 
marks upon,  363 

Sauer,  or  Sower,  Christopher,  es- 
tablishes type-foundry  at  Ger- 
mantown,  Pa.,  102 

Savage,  William,  author  of  a  "  Dic- 
tionary of  Printing,"  128,  129; 
his  table  of  measurements  of 


398 


Index 


bodies  made  by  founders  of  Great 
Britain,  129 

Scheme  (or  Bill  in  Great  Britain), 
in  typography,  definition  of,  165, 
166;  for  different  fonts,  166,  167; 
object  of  the,  168 ;  not  exactly 
alike  in  all  foundries,  169 ;  for  a 
so-called  complete  font  of  roman 
and  italic,  169;  for  one-thousand- 
poundfont,  169-171;  of  fractions, 
173 

Schreff  er,  John,  son  of  Peter,  claims 
Gutenberg  as  inventor  of  print- 
ing, 78 

Schoeffer,  Peter,  prints  theGramma- 
tica  at  Mentz,  76;  round  gothic, 
or  semi-gothic,  of,  91 ;  Latin  Bible 
of  1462  printed  by,  294  (note  I). 
See  also  Fust,  John 

Schwabacher,the  early  admirers  of, 
91 ;  was  never  selected  by  English 
publishers,  296,  297 ;  example  of, 
303 ;  still  retains  its  old  popular- 
ity, 303  (see  also  note) ;  rounder, 
clearer,  and  simpler  than  the 
fractur,  304 ;  example  of,  304 

Sciences,  Academie  des,  commis- 
sion of,  formulates  rules  for  de- 
signing letters,  12  (note) 

Scotch-face,  standard  of  thirteen 
ems  limits  use  of,  118;  example 
of,  on  long-primer  body,  212  ;  ori- 
gin and  characteristics  of,  212; 
a  complete  series  first  shown  in 
America  by  James  Conner,  212, 
213 ;  its  grace  acknowledged,  213 ; 
objections  to,  213 ;  example  of,  on 
10-point  body,  213 ;  example  of 
condensed,  on  english  body,  214 ; 
many  sizes  needed  to  complete 
series  of,  246 

Script,  lack  of  durability  of,  35; 
lighter  impression  necessary  for 
page  of,  51,  52 ;  modeled  on  some 
fashion  of  letter  used  by  early 
copyists.  184;  the  line  separating 
italic  from,  not  easily  drawn,  279 

Secretary,  of  old  form.  See  Grosse 
bdtarde 

Sedan,  so-called  "Diamond"  edi- 
tions printed  by  Jannon  at,  67 

Sensenschmidt.  John,  prints  Bam- 
berg  Missal  of  1481  from  largest 
text-types,  84 

Serif,  in  types,  illustration  of,  29; 
description  of,  30 ;  should  have  a 
sloping  base,  48;  should  be  of 
uniform  length,  49;  types  with 


long  and  sharp,  49,  50  ;  types  with 
stubby,  50;  strengthened  with 
bracket-like  curves  in  all  modern 
light-faced  types,  51 ;  Dr.  Javal's 
remarks  upon  the  use  of,  250 ;  its 
place  in  typography,  253 ;  absence 
of,  in  gothic,  315,  316,  318 

Set,  in  printing,  definition  of,  122 

Shakespeare  Press,  admirablebooks 
printed  by,  101.  See  Bulmer 

Shells,  electrotype,  backing  up  of,  19 

Shoulder,  in  types,  illustration  of, 
29 ;  description  of,  30 ;  should  be 
sufficiently  low  on  body,  47,  48 

Signs,  number  of,  in  font,  12 ;  spe- 
cial, not  furnished  in  regular  as- 
sortment for  font,  12 

Six-line  pica  (72-point),  example  of, 
69 

Sixtus  iv,  Pope,  confers  the  title  of 
Count  Palatine  on  Jenson,  365 

Slug,  in  printing,  its  description 
and  uses,  108 

Small  capitals.  See  Capitals,  Small 

Small-pica  (11 -point),  illustration 
of  body  of,  29 ;  classed  as  an  ir- 
regular body,  58,  65 ;  capital  and 
lower-case  alphabets  of,  60,  61 : 
in  greater  request  than  the  regu- 
lar body  of  pica,  65  ;  examples  of. 
solid  and  leaded,  86,  87 ;  standard 
width  of,  114.  See  also  Double 
small-pica 

Societe  Litteraire-Typographique, 
Baskerville's  types  and  his  type- 
making  material  sold  to,  99 

Somme,  Lettre  de,  French  bibliog- 
raphers' name  for  round  gothic, 
293,  294  (see  also  note  I) ;  revival 
of,  and  remarks  upon,  299 

Soncino,  first  book  entirely  in  He- 
brew printed  at,  in  1488,  85 

Sorts,  in  printing,  definition  of,  32 

.Sower.     See  Sauer 

Spaces,  in  types,  illustrated,  29; 
table  exhibiting  point  system  ap- 
plied to,  163 ;  so-called  patent,  in 
use  in  large  book  offices,  164 

Spencer,  Thomas,  of  Liverpool,  a 
successful  experimenter  in  elec- 
trotyping,  18  (note) 

Squirt  machine,  invention  of,  26 
(note) 

Standard,  for  measuring  widths  of 
types,  remarks  upon,  114-122 

Stanhope,  Charles,  third  Earl  Stan- 
hope, English  scientist,  perfecter 
of  stereotyping,  97,  283 


Index 


399 


Star  Chamber,  Decree  of,  95 

Starr,  type-founders  bearing  family 
name  of,  18  (note),  103,  104 

Stationers'  Company,  an  injunction 
of,  95 

Stem,  in  types.     See  Body-mark 

Stephens.     See  Estienne 

Stephens,  Robert,  Garamond  makes 
Greek  characters  under  direction 
of,  88 

Stereotyping,  moulding  process  of, 
injurious  to  types,  37 ;  its  advan- 
tages, 39 ;  description  of  process, 
39 ;  freely  made  use  of  in  America, 
40;  supplanted  by  electrotyping 
for  book- work,  40 ;  benefits  of,  40, 
41 ;  early  processes  of,  97 ;  applied 
to  the  casting  of  types,  346 

Straight-edge,  its  use  in  punch-cut- 
ting, 14 

Strasburg,  able  printers  of  classic 
texts  at,  91 

Subiaco,  first  roman  types  made 
at,  187,  367 

Swash  letters,  example  of,  and  re- 
marks upon,  187 ;  special  form  of 
old-style  italic,  used  by  Leaden- 
hall  Press,  271  (note  1) 

Sweinheyin  (Sweinheim,  Sweyn- 
lieim)  and  Pannartz,  printers 
from  Germany,  first  roman  types 
made  by,  85,  187,  367 

Tables — an  exhibit  of  the  American 
and  English  names  of  types,  54 ; 
French  and  German,  55 ;  Italian, 
Spanish,  and  Dutch,  56 ;  relations 
of  all  types  to  each  other,  112  (see 
also  note) ;  different  widths  for 
type  faces,  115;  irregularities  of 
measuring  types,  119;  Moxon's 
ten  bodies  most  used  in  England, 
127;  Luckombe's  proper  dimen- 
sions of  bodies,  127,  128  (see  also 
note  1) ;  lines  of  different  sized 
type  in  one  foot,  129 ;  a  compara- 
tive scale  of  ems  in  linear  foot, 
130 ;  type  bodies  in  point  systems 
of  Fournier  and  Didot,  144;  Bruce 
system  of  geometrical  progression 
of  type  bodies,  148;  the  Ameri- 
can point  system  of  type  bodies, 
151;  comparison  of  three  scien- 
tific systems  of  type  bodies,  157 ; 
sizes  of  English  types,  158 ;  point 
system  applied  to  spaces,  163; 
characters  in  so-called  complete 
font  of  roman  and  italic,  169; 


scheme  for  thousand-pound  font, 
170,  171;  number  of  solid  pages 
composed  with  fonts  of  different 
weights,  176;  number  of  ems  in 
one  pound  of  type  of  different 
bodies,  composition  solid,  177 ; 
the  weight  of  six-to-pica  leads  in 
composition,  177,  178 ;  square 
inches  occupied  by  one  thousand 
solid  ems  of  different  types,  179 ; 
relations  of  one  thoxisand  solid 
ems  of  one  body  to  other  bodies, 
180;  price  lists  or :  American  Type 
Founders  Company,  338 ;  English 
and  Scotch  type-founders,  341; 
French  types,  342 ;  German  types, 

Taylor,  Bayard,  American  author, 
sketch  of,  278 

Taylor,  Dr.  Isaac,  English  philolo- 
gist and  antiquarian,  remarks  of, 
on  the  alphabet,  185  (note),  186 

Teutonic,  305,  306;  example  of,  307 

Text.  See  Great-primer  and  Para- 
gon 

Text-letters.     See  Text-types,  Types 

Text-types,  beauty  of,  consists  in 
their  precision,  31,  12;  multipli- 
cation of  faces  of,  53 ;  of  large 
quartos  and  folios,  63  ;  largest  in 
Sensenschmidt's  Missal  of  1481, 
84;  the  three  faces  of  greatest  use- 
fulness made  in  Italy,  85;  the 
roman  model  accepted  as  best, 
183;  quaint  styles  of,  359  et 
seq. 

Theorists,  French,  models  for  types 
made  by,  11 

Theuerdank,  or  Theuerdanck.  or- 
namented letters  of,  the  model  of 
modern  German-text,  91 

Thomas,  Isaiah,  printer  and  pxib- 
lisher,  sketch  of,  212 

Thome,  Robert,  an  English  type- 
founder, designs  a  new  series  of 
bold-face  tjrpes,  100 

Tin,  a  constituent  of  type-metal, 
9,  32  (see  also  note),  33 

Title.     See  Bold-face  and  Fat-face 

Title-pages,  closely  graded  series  of 
uniform  face  needed  for,  242,  243, 
244;  reasons  for  unsatisfactory, 
243,  244  (see  also  note);  two-line 
letters  of  three  widths  needed  for, 
246,  247,  248;  use  of  condensed 
capitals  for,  carried  to  excess,  257 

Title-type.    See  Fat-face. 

Torresani,    Andrew,     an     Italian 


400 


Index 


printer,  66 ;  procures  strikes  from 
punches  of  Jenson  roman,  365 

Tory,  Geoffrey,  a  French  engraver 
and  printer,  12  (note);  endeavors  to 
extend  the  use  of  roman  letter,  86 

Treadwell,  Daniel,  an  American  in- 
ventor, sketch  of,  275 

Trithemius,  the  Abbot,  describes 
type-making,  76 ;  names  Guten- 
berg as  inventor  of  printing,  78 

Trow,  John  F.,  of  New  York,  first 
practical  type-setting  machine 
used  in  office  of,  265 

Troy  type,  designed  by  Morris  on 
the  broad  -  faced  form  of  round 
gothic,  362;  remarks  upon,  362 

Two-line  pica.     See  Double  pica 

Type  -  casting,  explanation  of,  10 ; 
once  done  by  hand,  now  done  by 
machine,  22;  always  done  by  early 
printers,  81 

Type  -  casting  machine,  its  moulds 
made  attachable  to,  20;  descrip- 
tion and  construction  of,  20,  22, 
24 ;  illustration  of  the  Bruce,  23 ; 
its  popularity,  27;  improvements 
of  value  added  to  it,  27 ;  its  great 
defect,  27 ;  the  new  forms  of,  27 ; 
Barth  produces  a  complete,  27 ; 
foreign  inventors  of,  27 ;  descrip- 
tion and  illustration  of  the  Barth, 
27,  28 ;  machine  for  casting  intro- 
duced in  Great  Britain  by  Miller 
&  Richard,  101 

Type-dressing,  definition  of,  10 

Type-founders,  secret  formulae  of, 
32 ;  new  type  always  provided  for 
specimen-books  of,  37 ;  their  pref- 
erence for  Latin  phrases  in  old 
specimen  -  books  explained,  43, 
44;  modern  specimen-books  of 
French,  55  (note) ;  distinction  be- 
tween regularand  irregularbodies 
made  by,  58 ;  two -line  and  double - 
bodied  types  separately  named 
by  American,  59;  modern  taste  in- 
clining to  models  of  early  Italian, 
85 ;  notable  French,  87 ;  improve- 
ments in  types  made  by  French, 
89 ;  some  eminent  German,  91 ; 
prominent  Dutch,  92 ;  biographi- 
cal sketches  of  various,  94-105; 
named  in  Decree  of  Star  Cham- 
ber, 95;  early  English,  and  their 
successors,  95,96,  97;  inaccuracy 
of  the  early,  125, 126;  bodies  made 
by  all  leading  English,  129 ;  devia 
tions  from  standards  by  Ameri- 


can, 130;  precise  height-to-paper 
gauge  used  by,  153  ;  the  needs  of 
readers  lightly  regarded  by,  253, 
254;  early,  of  Rouen,  supply  Eng- 
land with  best  types,  294;  Ger- 
man forms  reproduced  by  Amer- 
ican, 305  ;  disused  process  of  cast- 


, 

bility  of,  to  maintain  exact  uni- 
formity in  a  full  series  of  types,  375 

Type  Founders'  Association,  Unit- 
ed States,  adoption  of  American 
point  system  by,  150  ;  methods 
for  securing  uniformity  of  type 
bodies  agreed  upon  by,  152  ;  re- 
jection of  French  system  by,  154; 
point  adopted  by  'the,  deviates 
little  from  that  devised  by  Four- 
iiier,  154,  155 

Type  Founders  Company,  Amer- 
ican, branches  of,  102,  103,  104, 
105  ;  price  list  of,  338  ;  remarks 
upon  the  latter,  339 

Type-founding,  not  like  other  arts, 
11  (note)  ;  one  of  the  many  forms 
of  printing,  26  ;  lack  of  system  in 
early,  81;  first  made  a*  distinct 
art  in  France,  86,  87  ;  high  repu- 
tation of  French,  87  ;  damage  to 
German,  91;  its  status  in  the 
Netherlands  during  latter  half  of 
fifteenth  century,  92 

Type-foundries,  notices  of,  94-105 

Type-gauge,  description  and  illus- 
tration of,  159,  160.  See  Gauge 

Type-making,  six  distinct  depart- 
ments of,  10  ;  practised  at  Mentz 
before  1460,  75;  Ulric  Zell  and 
Trithemius  on,  76;  recent  type- 
setting machines  owe  their  utility 
to  new  processes  for,  353  ;  sketch 
of  apparatus  for,  in  Mergenthaler 
and  Lanston  machines,  354-357; 
other  machines  in  process  of  de- 
velopment for.  357,  358  ;  not  prob- 
able that  older  methods  of,  will 
fall  into  disuse,  358 

Type-metal,  no  practical  substitute 
for,  9,  10  ;  model  letters  often  cut 
on,  18;  inflow  of,  into  mould,  20; 
constituents  of,  32  (see  also  note)- 
34  ;  the  useful  properties  of,  34  ; 
lack  of  durability  of,  35  ;  its  use 
in  stereotyping.  39  ;  test  of  hard- 
ness in,  42  ;  price  of,  varies  with 
market  rates  of  metals,  337 


Index 


401 


Type-mould.    See  Mould. 

Type-revolving  machine,  adjudged 
injurious  to  types,  37;  certain 
types  not  suited  for,  49,  50,  116 
(note) 

Types,  composition  of,  9 ;  utility  of 
"typography  depends  upon  accu- 
racy of,  9 ;  large  sizes,  for  posting- 
bills,  generally  made  of  wood,  10 ; 
beauty  of  text-,  consists  in  their 
precision,  11, 12;  charactersinf  ont 
of  roman  book-,  12 ;  variations  in 
depth  of  counters,  15,  16  (see  also 
note)  •,  smaller  sizes  rapidly  made, 
22 :  imperfect  as  thrown  from 
mould,  24;  dressing  or  finishing  of, 
25:  great  improvement  in  casting, 
25 ;  various  features  of,  illustrated 
and  described,  29  -  32  ;  soft  metal 
used  for  ornamental,  32 ;  lack  of 
durability  of,  35;  difficulties  in  the 
making  of  hard,  35  (see  also  note) ; 
durability  of,  depends  on  size  and 
cut  of  face,  36 ;  differing  views  of 
publishers  as  to  wear  of,  36,  37 ; 
repeated  handling  of,  injurious, 
37  ;  causes  of  wear  in,  37,  38 ;  va- 
rieties of  paper  destructive  to, 
38;  durability  of,  promoted  by 
cleanliness,  39 ;  greater  durability 
of  copper-faced,  41 ;  importance 
of  solidity  and  even  lining  of, 
43  (see  also  note) ;  uneven  lining 
of,  and  its  frequent  cause,  44; 
importance  of  fitting  up  of,  45 ; 
unequal  height  of  ,46;  legibility  of, 
improved  by  close  fitting,  47  ;  im- 
portance of  good  mechanical  fin- 
ish of,  47;  should  be  pleasing  alone 
or  in  mass,  49 ;  effect  upon  press- 
work  of  rudely  cut  or  badly  fitted, 
49 ;  inferior  durability  and  reada- 
bility of  bold  black -faced,  50;  com- 
parative durability  of  light-faced 
and  heavy-faced,  51, 52;  meth,odof 
naming,  53 ;  similarity  of  names 
of,  in  various  countries  mislead- 
ing, 57 ;  made  and  named  every- 
where without  system,  57;  bas- 
tard, 57,  58 ;  two-line  and  double- 
bodied,  59 ;  sizes  and  relative  pro- 
portions of  standard,  60, 61 ;  text 
and  ornamental,  62-68;  wonder- 
ful as  evidences  of  skill,  68 ;  dif- 
ferent sizes  of,  used  at  Mentz  be- 
fore 1460,  75;  similar  faces  of, 
used  by  Caxton,  Mansion,  and 
other  printers,  80 :  improvements 


in,  made  by  French  printers,  89 ; 
Bodoni's  peculiar  roman  and 
italic,  90 ;  made  by  linotype  ma- 
chine, 105;  steadily  increasing 
demand  for  book  and  job,  105; 
differences  between  bodies  of, 
106 ;  need  for  all  present  bodies  of, 
106 ;  irregular  sizes  of,  as  com  - 
mon  as  regular,  106  ;  proportions 
of  different,  109;  irregularities  in 
faces  of,  309,  110;  names  of,  de- 
termined by  size  of  body,  110;  ob- 
servations on  leaded,  111  (see  also 
note  2) ;  standard  widths  of,  114, 
116  (note) ;  various  sizes  of.  116; 
stereotyping  compels  use  of  wid- 
er, 116  (note)  ;  broader  face  im- 
perative for  small,  117. 118;  defect 
of  the  old  system  of  naming,  123 ; 
their  accuracy  of  the  first  impor- 
tance, 125 ;  affected  by  changes  in 
heat,  125 ;  variations  in  height  to 
paper  in  different  countries,  131 
(see  also  note) ;  six  standard  sizes 
of,  131,  132  :  basis  of  sizes  of  large 
wood  and  metal,  145,  146,  149; 
proposed  change  of  height  of,  153; 
injurious  effects  of  altered  stan- 
dard of  height,  154;  changeofbody 
in  English,  158;  importance  of  uni- 
formity in  height  of,  159 ;  point 
system  applied  to  the  set,  or 
width,  of,  161, 162;  163;  advantages 
of  "self -spacing,"  163;  directions 
for  using  a  new  font  of,  174 ;  space 
covered  by  one  pound  of,  174 ;  how 
to  find  weight  of  one  page  of,  174 ; 
square  inches  occupied  by  one 
thousand  solid  ems  of  various,  179; 
relations  as  to  ems  existing  be- 
tween different,  179  (see  also 
note),  180 ;  named  and  classified 
in  an  unsatisfactory  manner,  183; 
fanciful  names  seldom  given  to 
roman,  183;  arranged  in  three  dis- 
tinct classes,  183;  changes  in  the 
fashion  of,  209;  objections  to 
weak,  228;  defects  in  ordinary 
faces  of  roman,  230;  new  styles 
made  to  conform  to  new  methods, 
234 ;  sizes  composing  a  full  series 
of,  for  books  and  newspapers,  240; 
former  rarity  of  complete  series 
of,  241  (see  also  note) ;  irregulari- 
ties of  two-line,  242,  243,  244,  245 ; 
need  for  larger  sizes  of  two-line, 
245, 246;  examples  of,  and  remarks 
upon,  two-line,  251,  252;  con- 


402 


Index 


densed,  not  popular  in  American 
and  English  book  houses,  257 ;  re- 
action against  excessive  use  of 
condensed,  for  title-pages,  257, 
258 ;  delicacy  of  hair-line  in  large, 
258,  259;  limits  to  condensation 
of,  259  (see  also  note),  260 ;  scarcity 
of  moderately  condensed,  262 ; 
condensed,  appreciated  by  job 
printers,  262 ;  capitals  and  lower- 
case not  mates  in  some  fonts, 
263;  utility  and  abuse  of  extra 
condensed,  264,  265;  over-refine- 
ment in  the  designing  of,  309 ;  pro- 
priety of  different  prices  for  lead- 
ing classes  of,  336 ;  other  varieties 
of,  sold  at  special  and  irregular 
rates,  336,  337 ;  allowance  for  old, 
337;  changes  in  cost  of  metal  cause 
changes  in  prices  of,  337 ;  cheaper 
now  than  before,  337;  prices  of 
American,  338 ;  remarks  upon  the 
latter,  339 ;  different  rates  in  Eng- 
land for  large  and  small  fonts  of, 
340 ;  dissimilar  bodies  of  English 
and  American,  340;  prices  of 
English,  341 ;  rates  for  small  and 
ornamental,  higher  in  England 
than  in  America,  342 ;  prices  of 
French,  342;  variable  height  of 
French  and  German,  342,  343: 
unsatisfactoriness  of  types  cut- 
down,  343  ;  prices  of  German,  343 ; 
duty  on  importations  of,  344; 
obstacles  hindering  importation 
of,  344 ;  reasons  for  former  spar- 
ing use  of  large,  345  ;  unsatisfac- 
toriness of,  when  cast  in  sand- 
moulds,  345;  abandonment  of 
metal  for  larger  sizes  of,  346 ;  dif- 
ferent woods  used  for  making 
large,  346;  methods  of,  and  tools 
used  in,  making  wooden,  347, 348 ; 
proper  function  of,  359 ;  not  im- 
proved by  decoration,  359;  present 
forms  of  roman,  held  by  some  to 
be  inartistic,  361 ;  Morris  on  the 
need  of  better,  361 ;  the  first  ro- 
man, 367;  use  of  gothic,  for  later 
books  of  early  Venetian  printers, 
369 ;  early  unacceptability  of  ro- 
man, 369 ;  unsatisfactoriness  of 
early  forms  of  thick-stemmed 
roman,  370 ;  generous  relief  of 
white  space  needed  by,  370,  371, 
372;  impossibility  of  preserving 
uniformity  in  effect  throughout 
series  of,  375 


Type-setting,  mechanical,  former 
obstacles  to,  354;  the  Mergen- 
thalerand  Lanston  machines  for, 
354-357;  other  machines  in  pro- 
cess of  development  for,  357,  358 ; 
will  never  entirely  supplant  hand 
composition,  358 

Type-setting  machines,  usefulness 
of  recent  forms  of,  due  to  new  pro- 
cesses for  making  types,  353  ;  ap- 
paratus for  making  and  setting 
types  closely  related,  353,  354 

Typographical  Union,  Internation- 
al, determination  of  standard 
widths  of  types  by,  114 

Typography,  utility  of,  9;  impor- 
tance of  skilful  punch-cutting  in, 
11 ;  faultless,  to  be  had  only  from 
new  type,  37 ;  Gutenberg  claimed 
as  inventor  of,  78,  79 ;  key  to  the 
invention  of,  79;  most  valuable 
improvements  made  in,  by  Italian 
printers,  85;  Garamond  accom- 
plishes reforms  in,  86 ;  decadence 
of,  in  Italy,  90 ;  Day's  contribu- 
tions to,  94;  becomes  decadent 
in  England  after  Day's  death,  95 ; 
best  specimen  of  seventeenth - 
century  English,  95;  Moxon  on, 
96 ;  Java!  on  the  evolution  of,  334; 
uniformity  of  every  character 
a  great  merit,  361 ;  Morris's  views 
on  the  need  of  reform  in,  361 

United  States,  scarcity  of  letter- 
signers  in,  15 

United  States  Type  Founders'  As- 
sociation. See  Type  Founders' 
Association,  United  States 

University  Press,  of  Oxford,  early 
types  of,  cast  in  foreign  matrices, 
96 ;  had  its  own  press  as  early  as 
1478,  96 ;  contributions  to,  96 ;  its 
typographical  riches,  96 

Van  Benthuysen,  O.  R.,  a  printer, 
stereotyper,  and  type-founder. 
104 

Van  Dijk,  Christoffel,  Dutch  type- 
founder, exhibits  a  size  of  type 
between  pearl  and  diamond,  67, 
68 ;  cuts  punches  for  the  Elzevirs, 
92 ;  his  types  warmly  praised  by 
Moxon  and  Willems,  92 

Venice,  first  appearance  of  nonpa- 
reil roman  in  a  Catholic  manual 
printed  at,  67 ;  the  goldsmiths  cut 
punches  for  early  printers  at,  80 ; 


Index 


403 


roman  perfected  by  Jeiison  at,  in 
1471,  85;  italic  and  small  capi- 
tals introduced  by  Aldvis  Manu- 
tius  at,  in  1501,  85 ;  orientals  cut 
bv  Le  Be  for  printers  of,  87 ;  Jen- 
son'sdeathat,365;  thick- stemmed 
roman  types  at,  370 

Villiers,  Abbe  de,  extract  from,  273 

Virgil,  or  Vergil  (Publius  Vergili- 
us  Maro),  Roman  poet,  italic  of 
Aldus  first  used  in  octavo  edition 
of,  187,  270 

Voltaire  (Francois  Marie  Arouet), 
French  writer,  Beaumarchais  su- 
perintends complete  edition  of, 
in  Baskerville  types,  99 

Voskens,  Dirck,  of  Amsterdam,  dia- 
mond type  probably  first  made 
by,  67 ;  supplies  English  printers 
with  types,  92;  foundry  of,  ab- 
sorbed by  Haarlem  foundry,  92 

Weed,  Thurlow,  a  printer,  newspa- 
per proprietor,  and  public  man, 
sketch  of,  196 

Wells,  Darius,  a  New  York  printer, 
devotes  himself  to  the  manufac- 
ture of  wooden  type,  347 

Wells,  Horace,  an  American  type- 
founder, sketch  of,  221 

White,  Elihu,  favors  the  Johnson 
type-casting  machine,  26  (note); 


undertakes  to  make  types  with- 
out experience,  102;    moves  his 
type-foundry  to  New  York,  102, -es- 
tablishes branches  in  Buffalo  and 
Cincinnati,   102;    his  successors, 
102;  biographical  sketch  of,  222 
Whittingham,  Charles,  founder  of 
the  Chiswick  Press,  revives  Cas- 
lon  old-style,98;  sketch  of,  199 
Wilson,  Alexander,  a  Scottish  type- 
founder, sketch  of,  99 
Wood,  large  types  made  from,  10 
Woodcuts,  the  art  of  electrotyping 

first  used  for,  18  (note),  219 
Wood-engraving,  early,  84 
Worde,  Wynkyn  de,  pupil  and  suc- 
cessor of  Caxton,  93;  his  later 
types  cut  by  French  artists,  93 ; 
many  of  his  punches  and  types 
brought  from  Rouen,  93;  discov- 
ery of  some  original  punches  of, 
97;  Moxon's  model  letters  show 
no  important  departure  from 
those  used  by,  300;  Old  English 
the  character  first  used  by,  301 
(note  1) 

Zell,  Ulric,  on  invention  of  type- 
making,  76 ;  claims  Gutenberg  as 
inventor  of  printing,  78 

Zinc,  unsuitability  of,  as  an  alloy 
of  type-metal,  34  (see  also  note) 


